Comparing Timelines
Exploring the overlapping histories of "Spanish Empire" and "Industrial Revolution".
Spanish Empire
1402 - 1976
Industrial Revolution
1700 - 1930
1402 CE
Beginning of Canary Islands Conquest
Norman nobleman Jean de Béthencourt began the conquest of the Canary Islands under a feudal agreement with the Crown of Castile during the reign of Henry III. This marked the beginning of Spanish overseas expansion and would serve as a model for later colonial conquests.
1471 CE
Portuguese Discovery of Gold Coast
Portugal discovered the Gold Coast in the Gulf of Guinea, sparking a massive gold rush. This discovery intensified competition between Portugal and Castile for African territories and trade routes, leading to conflicts over lucrative commerce.
1475 CE
War of Castilian Succession Begins
The War of the Castilian Succession provided the Catholic Monarchs with an opportunity to attack Portuguese power and take control of the lucrative Guinea trade. This conflict would reshape Iberian colonial ambitions and territorial divisions.
1479 CE
Marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella
The marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile created a personal union that most scholars view as the foundation of the Spanish monarchy. This dynastic alliance unified the economic and military power of Iberia under the House of Trastámara.
Treaty of Alcáçovas
This treaty ended the War of Castilian Succession and established Portuguese dominance over African territories while securing Castilian control of the Canary Islands. It represented a major diplomatic victory for Portugal and forced Spain to seek alternative routes to Asia.
1492 CE
Conquest of Granada Completed
Ferdinand and Isabella defeated the last Muslim king and completed the Christian reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula after a ten-year war. This victory earned them the title of Catholic Monarchs from Pope Alexander VI and freed resources for overseas expansion.
Capitulations of Santa Fe
Christopher Columbus obtained his appointment as viceroy and governor of lands he might discover from the Catholic Monarchs. This document established the first administrative organization in the Indies and set the legal framework for Spanish colonization.
Columbus's First Voyage
Christopher Columbus's arrival in the Americas marked the beginning of Spanish colonization and the European Age of Discovery. This voyage fundamentally changed world history by connecting the Old and New Worlds permanently.
1493 CE
Inter Caetera Papal Bull
Pope Alexander VI issued the Inter caetera papal bull, which solidified Spain's claim to the newly discovered lands in the Americas. This papal decree provided religious and legal justification for Spanish colonization efforts.
1494 CE
Treaty of Tordesillas
Spain and Portugal divided the world into two spheres of influence, with Spain receiving exclusive rights to establish colonies in most of the New World. This treaty fundamentally shaped global colonization patterns and territorial claims.
1496 CE
Foundation of Santo Domingo
Bartholomew Columbus founded Santo Domingo, which became the first permanent European city in the Americas. This stone-built city served as the administrative center for Spanish colonial operations and the model for future colonial settlements.
1497 CE
Conquest of Melilla
Spain conquered Melilla in North Africa, marking the beginning of Spanish expansion into Muslim territories outside the Iberian Peninsula. This conquest established Spain's presence in North Africa and demonstrated its military capabilities.
1508 CE
Juan Ponce de León Conquers Puerto Rico
Juan Ponce de León conquered Puerto Rico, expanding Spanish control in the Caribbean. This conquest provided Spain with another strategic base for further expansion and demonstrated the effectiveness of Spanish military tactics in the New World.
1510 CE
Foundation of Santa María la Antigua del Darién
Vasco Núñez de Balboa established the first permanent settlement on the American mainland in present-day Panama. This settlement served as a crucial base for further exploration and the eventual discovery of the Pacific Ocean.
1513 CE
Balboa Discovers the Pacific Ocean
Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and became the first European to see the Pacific Ocean from the American coast. He claimed the Pacific and all adjoining lands for the Spanish Crown, vastly expanding Spanish territorial claims.
1516 CE
Charles I Becomes King of Spain
Charles I inherited the Spanish throne, beginning Habsburg rule in Spain. As the grandson of the Catholic Monarchs, he brought together the Castilian empire in the Americas with Habsburg possessions in Europe, creating a vast global empire.
1519 CE
Cortés Begins Conquest of Mexico
Hernán Cortés organized an expedition of 550 conquistadors and sailed for Mexico, defying the governor of Hispaniola. This unauthorized expedition would lead to the conquest of the Aztec Empire and establish Spanish dominance in Mesoamerica.
Battle of Potonchán
Cortés's forces defeated a 10,000-strong Chontal Mayan army at Potonchán, demonstrating Spanish military superiority and opening the path to the Aztec Empire. This victory established Spanish dominance over indigenous forces in Mexico.
Spanish Victory over Tlaxcalans
360 Castilians and 2,300 Totonac allies defeated a 20,000-strong Tlaxcalan army, leading to thousands of Tlaxcalans joining the Spanish against the Aztecs. This alliance was crucial for the eventual conquest of the Aztec Empire.
Spanish Enter Tenochtitlan
Cortés's forces entered Emperor Moctezuma II's capital city of Tenochtitlan, marking a crucial moment in the conquest of the Aztec Empire. This peaceful entry would soon turn into violent conflict and siege warfare.
1520 CE
Battle of Cempoala
Cortés defeated Pánfilo de Narváez's force sent to punish him for his unauthorized invasion of Mexico. This victory eliminated Spanish opposition to Cortés's conquest and reinforced his forces with Narváez's surviving troops.
La Noche Triste
The Spanish were driven out of Tenochtitlan during La Noche Triste, suffering heavy losses and losing all their gold and guns. This defeat demonstrated Aztec military capability and forced the Spanish to regroup for a prolonged siege.
Battle of Otumba
The Spanish and their allies, without artillery or arquebusiers, repelled 100,000 Aztecs at Otumba. This remarkable victory allowed the Spanish to escape and regroup, demonstrating their tactical superiority despite being outnumbered.
1521 CE
Fall of Tenochtitlan
After a prolonged siege, Tenochtitlan fell to Spanish forces and Cuauhtémoc was captured. At least 100,000 Aztecs died during the siege, marking the end of the Aztec Empire and the beginning of Spanish colonial rule in Mexico.
1523 CE
Alvarado Begins Central American Conquest
Pedro de Alvarado commenced the conquest of northern Central America following the fall of the Aztec Empire. This expansion extended Spanish control throughout Mesoamerica and established the foundation for colonial administration in the region.
1532 CE
Pizarro Conquers the Inca Empire
Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire by capturing its leader Atahualpa during a surprise attack in Cajamarca, resulting in the massacre of thousands of Incas. This conquest opened vast territories in South America to Spanish colonization.
1535 CE
Establishment of Viceroyalty of New Spain
The Viceroyalty of New Spain was established to govern Spanish territories in North America and the Caribbean. This administrative reorganization centralized colonial government and established the framework for Spanish rule in the Americas.
1542 CE
Establishment of Viceroyalty of Peru
The Viceroyalty of Peru was established to govern Spanish territories in western South America, including present-day Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, and parts of Chile and Argentina. This created the administrative structure for Spanish rule in South America.
1545 CE
Discovery of Potosí Silver Mines
The rich silver mines of Potosí in Bolivia were discovered, becoming one of the most important sources of wealth for the Spanish Empire. These mines would produce vast quantities of silver that financed Spanish military campaigns and territorial expansion.
1556 CE
Philip II Becomes King of Spain
Philip II inherited the Spanish throne from his father Charles V, ruling over one of the first truly global empires. His reign would see the height of Spanish power and the colonization of the Philippines, making Spain a dominant world power.
1559 CE
Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis
Philip II reaffirmed Spanish control over the Kingdom of Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, and the Duchy of Milan through this treaty. This agreement solidified Spanish dominance in Italy and established it as the core of Spanish power in Europe.
1565 CE
Spanish Colonization of Philippines Begins
Spanish explorer Miguel López de Legazpi arrived in the Philippines, beginning Spanish colonization of the archipelago. This expansion made Philip II ruler of one of the first true globe-spanning empires, connecting Asia to the Spanish colonial system.
1580 CE
Spanish Annexation of Portugal
Philip II's victory in the War of the Portuguese Succession led to the annexation of Portugal and the creation of the Iberian Union. This effectively integrated Portugal's overseas empire into Spain's domain, creating an unprecedented global empire.
1640 CE
Portugal Regains Independence
Portugal regained its independence from Spain, ending the Iberian Union that had lasted since 1580. This separation reduced Spanish territorial control and marked the beginning of the decline of Spanish global dominance.
1698 CE
Thomas Savery patents steam pump
Thomas Savery patented the first commercially successful industrial use of steam power in 1698. His low-lift combined vacuum and pressure water pump generated about one horsepower and was used in waterworks and mines, marking the beginning of steam power applications.
1700 CE
Death of Charles II and War of Spanish Succession
Charles II of Spain died without an heir, leading to the War of the Spanish Succession. This conflict would determine the future of the Spanish Empire and result in the establishment of Bourbon rule in Spain.
Philip V Becomes King of Spain
Philip V, a French Bourbon prince and grandson of Louis XIV, became King of Spain after the War of Spanish Succession. This marked the beginning of Bourbon rule in Spain and initiated significant administrative and economic reforms.
1701 CE
Jethro Tull's mechanical seed drill developed
Jethro Tull's mechanical seed drill was developed in the early 18th century (around 1701), ensuring more even sowing and depth control. This agricultural innovation was part of the British Agricultural Revolution that supported industrial development by increasing food production efficiency.
1704 CE
John Harris publishes Lexicon Technicum
John Harris published the Lexicon Technicum, offering extensive scientific and engineering entries. This technical encyclopedia helped disseminate industrial methods and knowledge, contributing to the spread of technological innovation during the early Industrial Revolution.
1709 CE
Abraham Darby uses coke in blast furnaces
Abraham Darby made progress using coke to fuel his blast furnaces at Coalbrookdale. This innovation began the transition from charcoal to coke in iron production, though the coke pig iron was initially only suitable for cast iron goods rather than wrought iron.
1712 CE
Thomas Newcomen introduces steam engine
Thomas Newcomen introduced the first successful piston steam engine before 1712. These engines were installed for draining deep mines and represented the first practical application of steam power, though they were extremely inefficient by modern standards.
1713 CE
Treaties of Utrecht
The Treaties of Utrecht ended the War of Spanish Succession, confirming Philip V as King of Spain while ceding European territories to other powers. The treaty also granted Britain the asiento de negros, allowing British merchants to sell slaves in Spanish America.
1721 CE
John Lombe's silk mill becomes operational
John Lombe's water-powered silk mill at Derby became operational, arguably the first highly mechanised factory. Lombe had learned silk thread manufacturing by acting as an industrial spy in Italy, representing early technology transfer and industrial espionage.
1730 CE
Joseph Foljambe develops iron Rotherham plough
Joseph Foljambe developed the iron Rotherham plough around 1730. This agricultural innovation was part of the British Agricultural Revolution that increased crop yields and released labor for industrial employment, supporting the broader Industrial Revolution.
1733 CE
John Kay patents the flying shuttle
John Kay patented the flying shuttle in 1733, which doubled the output of a weaver. This innovation worsened the imbalance between spinning and weaving, creating pressure for further technological developments in textile production.
1740 CE
Benjamin Huntsman develops crucible steel technique
Benjamin Huntsman developed his crucible steel technique in the 1740s. This improvement in steel production was crucial as steel was an expensive commodity used only where iron would not suffice, such as for cutting edge tools and springs.
1741 CE
Battle of Cartagena de Indias
Spain successfully repulsed a major British attack on the fortress of Cartagena de Indias in present-day Colombia. This victory helped secure Spanish dominance in the Caribbean and demonstrated the effectiveness of Spanish colonial defenses.
1743 CE
Factory opens in Northampton with Paul and Wyatt's machines
A factory opened in Northampton with 50 spindles on each of five of Paul and Wyatt's machines. Lewis Paul had patented the roller spinning frame and flyer-and-bobbin system, representing early mechanization of textile production.
1748 CE
Paul and Bourn patent carding machines
Paul and Bourn patented carding machines in 1748. Based on two sets of rollers that travelled at different speeds, this technology was later used in the first cotton spinning mill, advancing textile mechanization.
1757 CE
John Wilkinson patents hydraulic powered blowing engine
Ironmaster John Wilkinson patented a hydraulic powered blowing engine for blast furnaces in 1757. This innovation improved the efficiency of iron production by providing better blast power for furnaces.
1760 CE
Industrial Revolution begins in Great Britain
The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain around 1760, marking the start of a transitional period toward more widespread, efficient manufacturing processes. This transformation included the shift from hand production to machines and the rise of the mechanized factory system.
Cast iron blowing cylinder first used
The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760, improving blast furnace operations. This innovation allowed for higher blast furnace temperatures and increased iron production efficiency.
Hamleys toy store opens in London
Hamleys, the oldest toy store, opened in London in 1760. This represents the growth of consumer retail businesses during the Industrial Revolution, as rising prosperity created new markets for consumer goods.
1761 CE
Bridgewater Canal opens
The Bridgewater Canal in North West England opened in 1761, proving hugely commercially successful. From Worsley to Manchester, it cost £168,000 but reduced coal prices in Manchester by half within one year, inspiring Canal Mania across Britain.
1764 CE
James Hargreaves invents the spinning jenny
James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny in Oswaldtwistle, Lancashire in 1764. It was the first practical spinning frame with multiple spindles, revolutionizing textile production by allowing one worker to spin multiple threads simultaneously.
1768 CE
Cast iron blowing cylinder used at Carrington
The first blowing cylinder made of cast iron is believed to be the one used at Carrington in 1768, designed by John Smeaton. This advancement improved blast furnace efficiency and iron production capacity.
1769 CE
Richard Arkwright patents the water frame
Richard Arkwright patented the water frame in 1769, which could produce hard, medium-count thread suitable for warp. This finally allowed 100% cotton cloth to be made in Britain, revolutionizing textile production.
1771 CE
Arkwright establishes water-powered factory at Cromford
Richard Arkwright used water power at a factory in Cromford, Derbyshire in 1771, giving the water frame its name. This represented the establishment of the factory system and mechanized production methods.
1774 CE
John Wilkinson invents cylinder boring machine
John Wilkinson invented a machine for boring cylinders in 1774. This was the first large precision machine tool and was crucial for manufacturing steam engine cylinders, enabling the development of more efficient steam engines.
Leeds and Liverpool Canal opens
The Leeds and Liverpool Canal opened in 1774, becoming one of the most notable canals built during Canal Mania. This canal connected major industrial centers and facilitated the transport of raw materials and finished goods.
1776 CE
Establishment of Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata
Spain created the Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata to better administer its South American territories and counter Portuguese expansion. This administrative reorganization reflected Bourbon efforts to modernize colonial government and improve economic efficiency.
Wilkinson bores first successful cylinder for Watt engine
John Wilkinson bored the first successful cylinder for a Boulton and Watt steam engine in 1776, leading to an exclusive contract for providing cylinders. This precision manufacturing was crucial for steam engine development.
1778 CE
Iron Bridge opens in Shropshire
The Iron Bridge opened in 1778, built with cast iron produced by Abraham Darby III. This was the world's first bridge constructed of iron and demonstrated the structural potential of cast iron as a building material.
James Watt perfects his steam engine
James Watt, with financial support from Matthew Boulton, perfected his steam engine by 1778. The engine incorporated radical improvements including a separate steam condenser chamber, increasing efficiency dramatically and using only 20-25% as much coal as Newcomen's engines.
1779 CE
Samuel Crompton invents the spinning mule
Samuel Crompton invented the spinning mule in 1779, a hybrid of Arkwright's water frame and Hargreaves's spinning jenny. The mule could produce finer thread than hand spinning at lower cost and was suitable for use as warp, allowing Britain to produce highly competitive yarn.
1780 CE
Tupac Amaru Uprising
A major indigenous uprising led by Tupac Amaru II erupted in Peru, challenging Spanish colonial authority. This rebellion demonstrated growing unrest with Bourbon reforms and tighter colonial control, foreshadowing later independence movements.
1781 CE
Siege of Pensacola
Spanish forces led by Bernardo de Gálvez captured Pensacola from the British during the American Revolutionary War. This victory was part of Spain's successful Gulf Coast campaign that helped recapture Florida from British control.
Iron Bridge officially opens
The Iron Bridge in Shropshire officially opened in 1781, becoming the world's first bridge constructed entirely of iron. This landmark engineering achievement demonstrated the structural capabilities of cast iron and influenced future construction methods.
1782 CE
Watt develops rotary steam engine
James Watt developed a rotary steam engine in 1782, which could directly drive factory machinery. This innovation made steam power widely applicable to industrial processes including blowing, hammering, rolling and slitting operations.
1783 CE
Henry Cort develops rolling process
Henry Cort developed the rolling process in 1783, which was fifteen times faster than hammering wrought iron. This innovation significantly improved the efficiency of iron production and processing.
Watt steam engine becomes double-acting rotative type
The Watt steam engine was fully developed into a double-acting rotative type in 1783, meaning it could directly drive rotary machinery in factories and mills. This advancement made steam power practical for widespread industrial use.
1784 CE
Henry Cort develops puddling process
Henry Cort developed the puddling process in 1784, which produced structural grade iron at relatively low cost. This process became widely used after 1800 and was crucial for producing high-quality wrought iron, though it was backbreaking work.
Andrew Meikle invents threshing machine
Andrew Meikle invented the threshing machine in 1784, which reduced manual labor requirements in agriculture. Hand threshing had taken about one-quarter of agricultural labor, so this innovation freed up workers for industrial employment.
1785 CE
Edmund Cartwright patents power loom
Edmund Cartwright developed and patented a vertical power loom in 1785. Realizing that the expiration of Arkwright's patent would increase cotton supply and create a weaver shortage, Cartwright's invention mechanized weaving to match spinning capacity.
Oliver Evans invents automated flour mill
Oliver Evans invented an automated flour mill in the mid-1780s that used control mechanisms and conveyors requiring no labor from grain loading to flour discharge. This is considered the first modern materials handling system and an important advance toward mass production.
1787 CE
Beverly Cotton Manufactory founded
Thomas Somers and the Cabot Brothers founded the Beverly Cotton Manufactory in 1787, the first cotton mill in America and the largest of its era. Though initially designed for horsepower, it served as a playground of innovation for cotton processing.
1789 CE
Thames and Severn Canal opens
The Thames and Severn Canal opened in 1789, connecting major waterways and facilitating trade and transport. This canal was part of the broader canal building boom that transformed Britain's transportation infrastructure during the Industrial Revolution.
1791 CE
Nicolas Leblanc introduces soda ash production method
Nicolas Leblanc succeeded in introducing a method for large-scale production of sodium carbonate (soda ash) in 1791. The Leblanc process enabled mass production of this important chemical used in glass, textile, soap, and paper industries.
Prague hosts first World's Fair
Prague hosted the first World's Fair in 1791 in Clementinum, showcasing the region's growing industrial sophistication. This exhibition celebrated advanced manufacturing techniques in the Czech lands and demonstrated the spread of industrialization beyond Britain.
1792 CE
Eli Whitney invents cotton gin
Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin in 1792, which could remove seed from cotton 50 times faster than by hand. This invention made upland cotton profitable and led to the massive expansion of slave plantations in the American South.
1793 CE
Samuel Slater founds Slater Mill
Samuel Slater founded Slater Mill at Pawtucket, Rhode Island in 1793. Having learned textile technologies as an apprentice in England, Slater defied laws against skilled worker emigration and established one of America's first successful textile mills.
1795 CE
Boulton and Watt open Soho Foundry
Boulton and Watt opened the Soho Foundry for the manufacture of steam engines in 1795. This facility became a major center for steam engine production and helped spread steam technology throughout Britain and beyond.
1796 CE
Harding, Howell & Co. opens first department store
Harding, Howell & Co. opened one of the first department stores in 1796 on Pall Mall, London. This represented the evolution of retail during the Industrial Revolution as rising prosperity created demand for diverse consumer goods in centralized locations.
1798 CE
Louis-Nicolas Robert patents paper machine
Louis-Nicolas Robert patented a machine for making continuous sheet paper on a loop of wire fabric in France in 1798. This innovation, later known as the Fourdrinier machine, revolutionized paper production and influenced other continuous production processes.
1799 CE
First use of 'Industrial Revolution' term
The earliest recorded use of 'Industrial Revolution' was in 1799 by French envoy Louis-Guillaume Otto, announcing that France had entered the race to industrialize. This marked the recognition of the transformative economic changes occurring across Europe.
1800 CE
Charles Tennant develops bleaching powder
Chemist Charles Tennant developed bleaching powder (calcium hypochlorite) in 1800, based on Claude Louis Berthollet's discoveries. This revolutionized textile bleaching by reducing the time required from repeated sun exposure to a chemical process.
Boulton and Watt patent expires
The Boulton and Watt patent expired around 1800, allowing other inventors like Richard Trevithick and Oliver Evans to develop higher-pressure steam engines. This led to more compact engines suitable for mobile applications like locomotives and steamboats.
1801 CE
First mechanical loom introduced in Czech lands
The first mechanical loom in the Czech lands was introduced in Varnsdorf in 1801, followed shortly by steam engines in Bohemia and Moravia. This marked the beginning of industrialization in the Habsburg realms, with the Czech lands becoming the industrial hub.
1802 CE
Abraham Rees publishes The Cyclopaedia
Abraham Rees published The Cyclopaedia; or, Universal Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Literature between 1802-19. This technical encyclopedia contained detailed articles and engraved plates on machines and processes, helping disseminate industrial knowledge.
1803 CE
Louisiana Purchase
Napoleon sold the Louisiana Territory to the United States, ending Spanish control over this vast region. This transaction marked the first major territorial loss for Spain in the 19th century and reduced Spanish influence in North America.
1806 CE
Cotton strain brought from Mexico to Natchez
A strain of cotton seed was brought from Mexico to Natchez, Mississippi in 1806, becoming the parent genetic material for 90% of world cotton production. This variety produced bolls three to four times faster to pick, revolutionizing cotton agriculture.
1808 CE
Napoleonic Invasion of Spain
Napoleon Bonaparte invaded the Iberian Peninsula and placed his brother Joseph on the Spanish throne, creating a crisis of legitimacy. This event triggered the Peninsular War and sparked independence movements throughout Spanish America.
1809 CE
Daniel Day establishes wool carding mill
Daniel Day established a wool carding mill in the Blackstone Valley at Uxbridge, Massachusetts in 1809, the third woollen mill established in the US. This contributed to the development of America's textile industry in the Blackstone Valley region.
1810 CE
Argentine Independence Movement Begins
Argentina began its independence movement, marking the start of widespread Spanish American wars of independence. This movement would inspire similar independence struggles throughout Spanish America and lead to the gradual dissolution of the Spanish Empire.
Mexican War of Independence Begins
The Mexican War of Independence began, initiating more than a decade of struggle against Spanish rule. This conflict would eventually lead to Mexican independence in 1821 and the loss of Spain's most valuable North American territory.
1811 CE
Luddite movement begins
The Luddite movement began in 1811 with attacks on textile machinery near Nottingham. Unemployed workers, unable to compete with machines, began destroying factories and equipment. The movement spread rapidly before being suppressed by military force.
1812 CE
Gas lighting utilities established in London
The first gas lighting utilities were established in London between 1812 and 1820. Gas lighting allowed factories and stores to remain open longer and enabled nightlife to flourish in cities, fundamentally changing social and industrial organization.
1813 CE
Samuel Horrocks patents improved loom
Samuel Horrocks patented an improved loom in 1813, which was later enhanced by Richard Roberts in 1822. These looms were produced in large numbers by Roberts, Hill & Co., advancing textile manufacturing efficiency.
1815 CE
Corn Laws enacted in Britain
The Corn Laws were enacted in Britain from 1815-46, imposing tariffs on imported grain to keep prices high for domestic producers. These laws adversely affected food supply and were eventually repealed during the Great Irish Famine.
1816 CE
Safety lamp invented
The safety lamp was invented in 1816 by Sir Humphry Davy, and independently by George Stephenson. This provided some protection against firedamp explosions in coal mines, though the lamps proved problematic and mining remained dangerous.
First macadam road built in Bristol
The first 'macadam' stretch of road was built as Marsh Road at Ashton Gate, Bristol in 1816. This new road construction method, developed by John McAdam, provided better, more durable roads for transportation.
1817 CE
Francis Cabot Lowell dies
Merchant Francis Cabot Lowell died in 1817 after establishing the Boston Manufacturing Company and America's second cotton-to-cloth textile mill at Waltham, Massachusetts. His associates later built America's first planned factory town named after him.
1818 CE
Middletown milling machine developed
The Middletown milling machine was developed around 1818 by Robert Johnson and Simeon North. This advancement in machine tools improved precision manufacturing capabilities and contributed to the development of interchangeable parts production.
1819 CE
Adams-Onís Treaty
Spain ceded its claims in the western United States to America and sold Florida, establishing a boundary between New Spain and the U.S. This treaty marked a significant reduction in Spanish territorial claims in North America.
1821 CE
Mexican Independence
Mexico gained independence from Spain after more than a decade of warfare, ending Spanish rule in its most valuable North American territory. This independence led to the subsequent independence of Central American provinces by 1823.
1822 CE
Richard Roberts improves loom design
Richard Roberts improved Samuel Horrocks' loom design in 1822. Roberts was a maker of high-quality machine tools and pioneer in the use of jigs and gauges for precision workshop measurement, advancing manufacturing precision.
1823 CE
First macadam road in US completed
The first macadam road in the U.S., the 'Boonsborough Turnpike Road' between Hagerstown and Boonsboro, Maryland, was completed in 1823. This represented the adoption of British road-building technology in America.
1824 CE
Battle of Ayacucho
The decisive Battle of Ayacucho effectively ended Spanish rule in South America, with the captured Royalist army consisting mostly of Spanish Americans rather than Spaniards. This victory secured independence for Peru and marked the end of major Spanish military presence in South America.
Joseph Aspdin patents portland cement
Joseph Aspdin, a British bricklayer turned builder, patented a chemical process for making portland cement in 1824. This important advance in building trades involved sintering clay and limestone, then grinding it into powder for concrete production.
Combination Act repealed
The Combination Act of 1799, which forbade workers from forming trade unions, was repealed in 1824. This allowed workers to organize, though unions remained severely restricted and were viewed with suspicion by authorities and employers.
1825 CE
Stockton and Darlington Railway opens
Steam-hauled public railways began with the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825. This marked the beginning of the railway age and demonstrated the practical application of steam locomotives for public transportation.
1828 CE
Hot blast development
Hot blast was developed in 1828, dramatically reducing fuel consumption in iron production. The 1828 development of hot blast, combined with other innovations, enabled the rapid expansion of railways by improving iron production capacity and efficiency.
James Beaumont Neilson patents hot blast
Scottish inventor James Beaumont Neilson patented hot blast in 1828, the most important 19th-century development for saving energy in pig iron production. It reduced fuel requirements by one-third using coke or two-thirds using coal.
1829 CE
Rainhill Trials demonstrate locomotive success
The Rainhill Trials in 1829 demonstrated Robert Stephenson's successful locomotive design. These trials proved the viability of steam locomotives and led to the rapid introduction of railways across Britain and beyond.
1830 CE
Belgium becomes independent
Belgium became independent in 1830, and especially after independence, factories comprising coke blast furnaces as well as puddling and rolling mills were built in coal mining areas around Liège and Charleroi, making Belgium the second country to industrialize.
Captain Swing disturbances affect southern Britain
The Captain Swing disturbances affected large parts of southern Britain in the 1830s as agricultural laborers protested industrialization. Threshing machines were particular targets, and hayrick burning was common, leading to the formation of trade unions.
Penny dreadfuls created
Penny dreadfuls were created in the 1830s to meet demand for cheap literature for the masses. These publications were 'Britain's first taste of mass-produced popular culture for the young' and 'the Victorian equivalent of video games.'
Major railway construction begins
Construction of major railways connecting larger cities and towns began in the 1830s, though it only gained momentum at the very end of the first Industrial Revolution. This marked the beginning of the railway boom that would transform transportation.
Liverpool and Manchester Railway opens
The Liverpool and Manchester Railway opened on September 15, 1830, becoming the first inter-city railway in the world. Engineered by Joseph Locke and George Stephenson, it linked Manchester with Liverpool and became highly successful, sparking Railway Mania.
1832 CE
Chance Brothers use cylinder process for sheet glass
In 1832, the Chance Brothers used the cylinder process to create sheet glass, becoming leading producers of window and plate glass. This advancement allowed larger panes without interruption, revolutionizing architecture and interior design.
Reform Act extends voting rights
The Reform Act of 1832 extended voting rights in Britain, though it did not grant universal suffrage. This political reform was part of broader social changes accompanying industrialization, though working-class representation remained limited.
1833 CE
First Factory Acts passed
The first general laws against child labor, the Factory Acts, were passed in Britain in 1833. Children younger than nine were prohibited from working, night work was banned for children, and working hours for those under 18 were limited to 12 hours.
1834 CE
Tolpuddle Martyrs transported to Australia
Six men from Tolpuddle in Dorset, who founded the Friendly Society of Agricultural Labourers, were arrested, found guilty, and transported to Australia in 1834. They became known as the Tolpuddle Martyrs and symbolized early labor organization struggles.
1836 CE
Charles Dickens publishes The Pickwick Papers
Charles Dickens published The Pickwick Papers in 1836, which became a phenomenon and sparked spin-offs and merchandise. Dickens used innovations of the era including new printing presses, enhanced advertising, and railways to sell books, defining modern entertainment.
1837 CE
Jérôme-Adolphe Blanqui describes Industrial Revolution
Jérôme-Adolphe Blanqui provided a description of the Industrial Revolution in 1837, helping to popularize the term. His work contributed to the growing recognition and understanding of the economic transformation occurring across Europe.
1840 CE
Industrial Revolution spreads to continental Europe and US
By about 1840, the Industrial Revolution had spread from Great Britain to continental Europe and the United States. This marked the global expansion of industrialization beyond its British origins, transforming economies worldwide.
Uniform Penny Post introduced
The Uniform Penny Post was introduced in 1840 with the invention of the postage stamp (Penny Black), charging one penny for carriage between any two places in the UK. This revolutionized communication and enabled mail order business development.
Electrical telegraph widely introduced
The electrical telegraph was widely introduced in the 1840s in the UK and US. While this new technology improved communication, it was not sufficient alone to drive high rates of economic growth during this period.
1842 CE
General strike organized through Chartist movement
In 1842, a general strike involving cotton workers and colliers was organized through the Chartist movement, stopping production across Britain. This demonstrated the growing power of organized labor and working-class political movements.
Laws improve mine working conditions
Laws passed in 1842 and 1844 improved mine working conditions in Britain. The employment of children and women in mining was forbidden, and other safety measures were implemented to address the dangerous conditions in coal mines.
1843 CE
Thames Tunnel opens
The Thames Tunnel opened in 1843, becoming the world's first underwater tunnel. English engineer Marc Isambard Brunel used portland cement concrete in its construction, demonstrating new engineering capabilities and construction materials.
1844 CE
Friedrich Engels publishes working class conditions
Friedrich Engels published 'The Condition of the Working Class in England' in 1844, describing the poor living conditions in industrial cities. This influential work exposed the harsh realities of industrial life and contributed to socialist thought.
Additional Factory Act passed
An additional Factory Act was passed in 1844, further restricting child labor and improving working conditions. These laws built upon the 1833 Factory Act to provide better protection for young workers in industrial settings.
1845 CE
R. White's Lemonade begins operations
R. White's Lemonade, a soft drinks company, began in 1845 by selling drinks in London from a wheelbarrow. This represents the growth of new consumer industries and street commerce during the Industrial Revolution.
1847 CE
Fry's produces first chocolate bar
Fry's of Bristol produced the first chocolate bar in 1847. This innovation in confectionery represented the transformation of luxury goods into mass-produced items affordable to broader segments of the population during industrialization.
1848 CE
Stock company law enacted in Sweden
A stock company law was enacted in Sweden in 1848, representing important institutional changes that supported industrialization. This legal framework facilitated business formation and investment in industrial enterprises.
1850 CE
Music halls develop in urban areas
Music halls developed in the 1850s as urbanization created new communities cut off from cultural roots, requiring new and accessible forms of entertainment. This represented the cultural adaptation to industrial urban life.
Sweden abolishes trade monopolies and joins gold standard
Sweden abolished most tariffs and barriers to free trade in the 1850s and joined the gold standard in 1873. These economic reforms supported Sweden's industrial development and integration into the global economy.
Waltham-Lowell system replaced by immigrant labor
By 1850, especially following the Great Famine of Ireland, the utopia-like Waltham-Lowell system was replaced by poor immigrant labor. This marked a significant change in American industrial labor practices and working conditions.
1851 CE
Great Exhibition held at Crystal Palace
The Great Exhibition was held at the Crystal Palace in 1851, showcasing industrial achievements and innovations. The Crystal Palace itself demonstrated new construction techniques using sheet glass and iron, symbolizing industrial progress.
1854 CE
John Snow traces cholera outbreak
In 1854, John Snow traced a cholera outbreak in Soho, London to fecal contamination of a public water well. His finding that cholera could be spread by contaminated water led to fundamental changes in public water and waste system design.
Watch industry industrialization begins
The industrialization of the watch industry started in 1854 in Waltham, Massachusetts, at the Waltham Watch Company. This involved developing machine tools, gauges and assembling methods adapted to the micro precision required for watches.
1855 CE
Metropolitan Board of Works begins London sewer system
The Metropolitan Board of Works, led by chief engineer Joseph Bazalgette, began construction of the modern sewage system in London in 1855. This massive public health project addressed sanitary conditions brought on by industrialization and urbanization.
1859 CE
London sewer system construction begins
The London sewer system began construction in 1859, including 82 miles of main sewers and 1,100 miles of street sewers. This revolutionary system diverted waste to the Thames Estuary and by the 1890s featured biological treatment of sewage.
1860 CE
Germany takes leadership in chemical industry
After 1860, the focus on chemical innovation shifted to dyestuffs, and Germany took leadership, building a strong chemical industry. Aspiring chemists flocked to German universities to learn the latest techniques, while British scientists lacked research universities.
Fish and chip shops first appear
In the 1860s, fish and chip shops first appeared to satisfy the needs of the growing industrial population. This represents the development of new food industries and urban dining culture during industrialization.
Henry Bessemer invents steel furnace
Henry Bessemer invented a new furnace in the 1860s that could convert molten pig iron into steel in large quantities. This innovation marked the beginning of the Second Industrial Revolution and mass steel production, though it only became widely available in the 1870s.
1861 CE
Spanish Annexation of Santo Domingo
Spain annexed Santo Domingo, which had been independent since 1821. This recolonization effort led to a guerrilla war in 1863 and proved costly for Spain, which spent over 33 million pesos fighting insurgents before withdrawing in 1865.
Pryce Pryce-Jones forms first mail order business
Welsh entrepreneur Pryce Pryce-Jones formed the first mail order business in 1861, selling Welsh flannel through catalogues. Customers could order by mail and goods were delivered via the railway system, revolutionizing retail.
1863 CE
Britain's Alkali Act regulates air pollution
Britain's Alkali Act of 1863 was passed to regulate air pollution from the Leblanc process used to produce soda ash. This was among the first large-scale modern environmental laws, with alkali inspectors appointed to curb pollution.
1865 CE
Spanish Withdrawal from Santo Domingo
Spain withdrew from Santo Domingo after spending over 33 million pesos fighting insurgents, with 10,888 Spanish soldiers killed or wounded and 18,000 dead from all causes. This costly failure demonstrated the difficulty of reestablishing colonial control.
1867 CE
Reform Act extends franchise
The Reform Act of 1867 extended the franchise in Britain, allowing trades unions to begin supporting socialist parties after achieving effective political organization. This political reform enabled greater working-class representation.
Austria-Hungary formed
The Habsburg realms became Austria-Hungary in 1867. The empire had grown from 23 million people in 1800 to 36 million by 1870, with industrial development varying across regions but accelerating after this political reorganization.
1868 CE
Cadbury produces heart-shaped chocolate box
Cadbury of Birmingham produced a heart-shaped box of chocolates for Valentine's Day in 1868, becoming the first to commercialize the association between confectionery and romance. This represents the development of modern marketing and consumer culture.
1870 CE
Meiji period begins in Japan
The Industrial Revolution began in Japan around 1870 as Meiji period leaders decided to catch up with the West. The government built railways, improved roads, inaugurated land reform, and established a Western-based education system.
Parliament official emphasizes education importance
A senior government official told Parliament in 1870 that industrial prosperity depended on elementary education provision. This recognition of education's role in industrial competitiveness led to increased investment in public schooling.
Rapid growth resumes after 1870
Rapid economic growth resumed after 1870, driven by new innovations of the Second Industrial Revolution. These included steel-making processes, mass production, assembly lines, electrical grid systems, and large-scale manufacture of machine tools.
Steel becomes widely available
Steel became widely available in the 1870s after the Bessemer process was modified to produce more uniform quality. This marked the true beginning of the steel age and the Second Industrial Revolution's impact on construction and manufacturing.
1871 CE
Iwakura Mission tours Europe and US
In 1871, the Iwakura Mission, a group of Japanese politicians, toured Europe and the US to learn Western ways. This resulted in a deliberate state-led industrialization policy to enable Japan to quickly catch up with Western industrial powers.
German unification stimulates railway growth
German unification in 1871 stimulated consolidation, nationalization into state-owned companies, and further rapid railway growth. Unlike France, the goal was supporting industrialization with heavy lines crisscrossing the Ruhr and connecting major ports.
1873 CE
Sweden joins gold standard
Sweden joined the gold standard in 1873, completing economic reforms that included abolishing trade barriers in the 1850s. This monetary policy supported Sweden's integration into the global economy and industrial development.
1875 CE
Public Health Act requires smoke consumption
The Public Health Act of 1875 required all furnaces and fireplaces to consume their smoke and provided sanctions against factories emitting large amounts of black smoke. This environmental legislation addressed industrial pollution concerns.
1881 CE
Arnold Toynbee popularizes Industrial Revolution term
Arnold Toynbee's 1881 lectures gave a detailed account of the Industrial Revolution term, and he is credited with its popularization. His academic work helped establish the concept as a recognized historical period and phenomenon.
1882 CE
Bank of Japan founded
The Bank of Japan was founded in 1882, using taxes to fund model steel and textile factories. This state-led approach to industrialization helped Japan rapidly develop modern industry and catch up with Western industrial powers.
1885 CE
Further franchise extension
The franchise was extended again in 1885, allowing trades unions to support socialist parties that eventually merged to become the British Labour Party. This political development gave working people greater representation in government.
1890 CE
Electricity and electrification revolution begins
By the 1890s, a new revolution began with electricity and electrification in the electrical industries. This marked another phase of the Second Industrial Revolution, transforming power generation and industrial applications.
First giant industrial corporations emerge
By the 1890s, industrialization had created the first giant industrial corporations with global interests. Companies like U.S. Steel, General Electric, Standard Oil and Bayer AG joined railroad and ship companies on world stock markets.
1894 CE
Manchester Ship Canal opens
The Manchester Ship Canal opened in 1894, becoming the world's largest ship canal and opening Manchester as a port. However, it never achieved commercial success and signaled canals as a dying transport mode in the railway age.
1898 CE
Spanish-American War Begins
The United States declared war on Spain, marking the start of the Spanish-American War. This conflict would result in Spain losing its remaining territories in the Americas and the Pacific, effectively ending the Spanish Empire.
Treaty of Paris (1898)
The Treaty of Paris ended the Spanish-American War, with Spain ceding Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Guam to the U.S. and selling the Philippines for $20 million. This treaty marked the effective end of the Spanish Empire as a global power.
Coal Smoke Abatement Society formed
The Coal Smoke Abatement Society was formed in Britain in 1898, founded by artist William Blake Richmond who was frustrated with pollution from coal smoke. This environmental organization worked to address industrial air pollution.
1899 CE
German-Spanish Treaty
Spain sold its remaining Pacific Ocean possessions to Germany, retaining only its African territories. This transaction completed Spain's withdrawal from the Pacific and marked the end of its global maritime empire.
1905 CE
Growth renewal after 1905
Economic growth renewed after 1905 according to Maurice Lévy-Leboyer's analysis of French industrialization. This marked the end of the economic slowdown period (1860-1905) and the beginning of renewed industrial expansion.
1912 CE
Spanish Morocco Established
Morocco was divided between French and Spanish protectorates, with Spain receiving the northern region. This division established Spanish Morocco as one of Spain's last significant colonial territories in the 20th century.
1921 CE
Battle of Annual
Spanish forces suffered a major military defeat against Moroccan insurgents led by Abdelkrim during the Rif War. This disaster was described as occurring during 'the most acute period of Spanish decadence' and led to the use of chemical weapons.
1925 CE
Alhucemas Landing
The Spanish Army and Navy, with French collaboration, conducted the Alhucemas landing, ending the Rif War. This operation is considered the first successful amphibious landing in history supported by seaborne air power and tanks.
1930 CE
Industrial development continues to 1930
From 1890 to 1930, new industries developed focusing on domestic markets including mechanical engineering, power utilities, papermaking and textile. This period saw the maturation of industrial economies and diversification of manufacturing.
1956 CE
Spanish Morocco Independence
When French Morocco became independent, Spain surrendered Spanish Morocco to the new nation but retained control of Sidi Ifni, Tarfaya, and Spanish Sahara. This marked the beginning of the end of Spanish colonial presence in North Africa.
1968 CE
Equatorial Guinea Independence
Under pressure from Equatoguinean nationalists and the United Nations, Spain announced it would grant independence to Equatorial Guinea. This decision marked Spain's withdrawal from its last significant African colony.
1975 CE
Spanish Withdrawal from Western Sahara
The Green March prompted Spanish withdrawal from Spanish Sahara under Moroccan military pressure, ending Spanish control over its last major colonial territory. The future of this former Spanish colony remains disputed to this day.
1976 CE
End of Spanish Empire
The Spanish Empire officially ended in 1976 with the completion of decolonization processes. This marked the conclusion of nearly 500 years of Spanish colonial rule and the transformation of Spain into a modern European nation-state.