Roman Empire vs History of Buddhism
500 BCE – 1 BCE
Founding of the Roman Republic
Rome began expanding shortly after the founding of the Roman Republic in the 6th century BC. The Republic was governed by annually elected magistrates, including Roman consuls, in conjunction with the Senate. It was not a nation-state in the modern sense but a network of self-ruled towns and provinces administered by military commanders.
Rome Expands Beyond the Italian Peninsula
Rome began expanding outside the Italian Peninsula in the 3rd century BC, growing from a regional power into a Mediterranean empire. This expansion was driven by military conquest and the incorporation of conquered peoples into the Roman system. The Republic organized conquered Italian communities to generate vast reservoirs of manpower for its army.
Rome Controls Most of the Mediterranean
By 100 BC, the city of Rome had expanded its rule from the Italian peninsula to most of the Mediterranean and beyond. However, this period was also marked by severe destabilization through civil wars and political conflicts. The Republic's success in conquest paradoxically sowed the seeds of its own transformation.
Assassination of Julius Caesar
In 44 BC, Julius Caesar was briefly perpetual dictator before being assassinated by a faction that opposed his concentration of power. This event triggered a new round of civil wars and political upheaval that would ultimately transform the Roman Republic into an empire. The assassins were driven from Rome and defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC.
Battle of Philippi
The faction that assassinated Julius Caesar was driven from Rome and defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC by Mark Antony and Caesar's adopted son Octavian. This victory consolidated power in the hands of the Second Triumvirate and set the stage for the eventual conflict between Antony and Octavian. The battle effectively ended the Republican cause.
Battle of Actium
Octavian's forces defeated those of Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, ending the last major challenge to Octavian's supremacy. This naval battle off the coast of Greece was the decisive confrontation of the Roman civil wars. The subsequent conquest of the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt followed, making Octavian the undisputed master of the Roman world.
Augustus Establishes the Principate
In 27 BC, the Roman Senate granted Octavian the title Augustus ('venerated') and made him princeps ('foremost') with proconsular imperium, marking the beginning of the Principate and the first epoch of Roman imperial history. Although the republic stood in name, Augustus had all meaningful authority. This event is traditionally considered the founding of the Roman Empire.
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Augustus of Prima Porta, the first Roman Emperor
Augustus Establishes the Cursus Publicus
Augustus established the cursus publicus, the state mail and transport service, which relied on relay stations located along Roman roads every seven to twelve Roman miles. This infrastructure supported imperial administration and communication across the vast empire. Communities paid in-kind taxes that included the provision of personnel, animals, or vehicles for this service.
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The Tabula Peutingeriana, an itinerarium often assumed to be based on the Roman cursus publicus
Lex Fufia Caninia Limits Slave Manumission
In 2 BC, a law known as the Lex Fufia Caninia was passed that limited the number of slaves an owner was allowed to free in his will. This legislation reflected Augustus's concern about the rapid growth of the freedman class and its social implications. Manumission had become frequent enough that this legal restriction was deemed necessary.
Birth and Life of Siddhārtha Gautama
Siddhārtha Gautama, the historical founder of Buddhism, was born in the small Shakya Republic in what is now modern-day Nepal. He renounced the householder life, studied under various teachers as a sramana ascetic, and attained nirvana and bodhi through meditation. For the remaining 45 years of his life he traveled the Gangetic Plains teaching his doctrine and initiating monks and nuns into his order. By the time of his death at age 80, he had thousands of followers.
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The sixteen most powerful kingdoms and republics around the lifetime of Gautama Buddha, showing the political landscape of ancient India during his life.
First Buddhist Council at Rājagṛha
Just after the Buddha's Parinirvana, the first Buddhist council was traditionally held at Rājagṛha (today's Rajgir), presided over by Mahākāśyapa with the support of king Ajātasattu. The council aimed to recite and organize the orally transmitted collections of the Buddha's teachings. Almost all modern scholars have questioned the historicity of this first council.
Second Buddhist Council and First Schism
The Second Buddhist Council took place at Vaishali approximately one hundred years after Gautama Buddha's parinirvāṇa, resulting in the first major schism of the Buddhist sangha. The community split into the Sthavira (Elders) and Mahasamghika (Great Sangha) factions, primarily over disagreements about monastic discipline (vinaya). These two groups would further divide into the various Early Buddhist Schools over subsequent centuries.
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Relief from Sanchi depicting early Buddhist community events, illustrative of the early Buddhist sangha period.
Founding of the Mauryan Empire
The Mauryan Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya around 322 BCE and became the world's first major Buddhist state under Emperor Ashoka. The empire established free hospitals and free education and promoted human rights. It encompassed most of the Indian subcontinent and provided the political framework for Buddhism's first major expansion.
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Map showing the extent of the Maurya Empire, the world's first major Buddhist state.
Introduction of Abhidharma Literature
In the third century BCE, some Buddhists began introducing new systematized teachings called Abhidharma, based on previous lists or tables of main doctrinal topics. Unlike the Nikayas, the Abhidharma literature consisted of systematic doctrinal exposition and often differed across Buddhist schools. These texts further contributed to the development of sectarian identities and sought to analyze all experience into its ultimate constituents called dharmas.
Reign of Emperor Ashoka and Buddhist Expansion
During the reign of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka (268–232 BCE), Buddhism gained royal support and began to spread more widely, reaching most of the Indian subcontinent. After his invasion of Kalinga, Ashoka experienced remorse and began working to improve the lives of his subjects, building wells, rest-houses and hospitals. He propagated religion by building stupas and pillars urging respect for all animal life, and sent emissaries to spread Buddhism as far as Sri Lanka and the Greek kingdoms.
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Map of the Buddhist missions during the reign of Ashoka, showing the spread of Buddhism across the known world.
Ashoka's Proselytism in the Hellenistic World
Ashoka's edicts describe efforts to propagate the Buddhist faith throughout the Hellenistic world, identifying Greek monarchs including Antiochus II Theos, Ptolemy II Philadelphos, Antigonus Gonatas, Magas, and Alexander II as recipients of Buddhist proselytism. Emissaries including Greek monks like Dhammarakkhita were sent to spread Buddhism. This represents one of the earliest known instances of Buddhist missionary activity in the Western world.
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Map showing the extent of Ashoka's Buddhist missions, including to the Hellenistic world.
Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra
Ashoka convened the third Buddhist council around 250 BCE at Pataliputra (today's Patna) with the elder Moggaliputtatissa. The objective was to purify the Saṅgha, particularly from non-Buddhist ascetics attracted by royal patronage. Following the council, Buddhist missionaries were dispatched throughout the known world as recorded in some of the edicts of Ashoka.
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One of the pillars of Ashoka, which recorded his edicts and missionary activities.
Buddhism Established in Sri Lanka
Sri Lankan chronicles state that Ashoka's son Mahinda brought Buddhism to the island during the 2nd century BCE, converting King Devanampiya Tissa and many of the nobility. Ashoka's daughter Saṅghamitta also established the bhikkhunī (order for nuns) in Sri Lanka, bringing a sapling of the sacred bodhi tree that was planted in Anuradhapura. These two figures are seen as the mythical founders of Sri Lankan Theravada Buddhism.
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The Jetavanaramaya in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka, one of the great Buddhist monuments built in the early centuries of Sri Lankan Buddhism.
Greco-Bactrian Invasion and Indo-Greek Kingdom
The Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius I invaded the Indian Subcontinent around 200 BCE, establishing an Indo-Greek kingdom that lasted in parts of Northwest South Asia until the end of the 1st century CE. Buddhism flourished under the Indo-Greek and Greco-Bactrian kings, leading to a unique synthesis of Greek and Buddhist art and culture known as Greco-Buddhism.
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A Greco-Buddhist statue from Gandhara, one of the first representations of the Buddha, showing the synthesis of Greek and Buddhist artistic traditions.
Shunga Dynasty and Decline of Mauryan Buddhism
The Shunga dynasty (185–73 BCE) was established after military commander Pushyamitra Shunga assassinated the last Mauryan king. Buddhist scriptures allege that Pushyamitra persecuted Buddhists, destroying monasteries and offering rewards for killing monks, though modern historians dispute this based on archaeological evidence. Buddhist monks deserted the Ganges valley and artistic creation shifted to Gandhāra, Mathura, and Amaravati.
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The Great Stupa at Sanchi as it appeared under the Shunga dynasty, showing continued Buddhist architectural activity despite alleged persecution.
Reign of King Menander I and Greco-Buddhism
Menander (reigned c. 160–135 BCE) was one of the most famous Indo-Greek kings and may have converted to Buddhism. He is presented in the Mahāyāna tradition as one of the great benefactors of the faith, on a par with Ashoka. The Milinda Pañha records a famous dialogue between Menander and the Buddhist monk Nāgasena, and upon Menander's death his remains were enshrined in stupas in a parallel with the historic Buddha.
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Greco-Buddhist art from the period of Indo-Greek rule, reflecting the cultural synthesis promoted by kings like Menander.
Origins of Mahayana Buddhism
The Buddhist movement that became known as Mahayana (Great Vehicle) began sometime between 150 BCE and 100 CE, drawing on both Mahasamghika and Sarvastivada trends. It emphasized the Bodhisattva path to full Buddhahood and emerged as a set of loose groups associated with new texts called the Mahayana sutras. The earliest inscription recognizably Mahayana dates from 180 CE and is found in Mathura.
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Relief from the Amarāvatī Stupa in Andhra Pradesh, a major site associated with the origins of Mahayana Buddhism.
Pāli Canon Written Down in Sri Lanka
The Pāli canon was written down during the 1st century BCE to preserve the teaching in a time of war and famine. It is the only complete collection of Buddhist texts to survive in a Middle Indo-Aryan language and reflects the tradition of the Mahavihara school. This event was crucial for the preservation and transmission of Theravada Buddhism.
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The Tripitaka Koreana, a later example of the Buddhist canon being preserved in written form, illustrating the tradition of canonizing Buddhist texts.
0 CE – 499 CE
Battle of the Teutoburg Forest
In 9 AD, Germanic tribes wiped out three Roman legions in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, one of Rome's most catastrophic military defeats. As a result, the number of legions was increased from 25 to around 30. This battle effectively halted Roman expansion into Germania and established the Rhine as the northeastern frontier of the empire.
Death of Augustus and Succession of Tiberius
Upon Augustus's death, Tiberius succeeded him as the new de facto monarch, establishing the principle of dynastic succession in the Roman Empire. During his 40-year rule, Augustus had created a new constitutional order that made this transition possible. The Julio-Claudian dynasty would last for four more emperors after Augustus.
Year of the Four Emperors
In 69 AD, the Julio-Claudian dynasty yielded to the strife-torn Year of the Four Emperors, a period of civil war and political instability. From this conflict, Vespasian emerged as the victor and became the founder of the brief Flavian dynasty. This year demonstrated the fragility of imperial succession and the power of the military in determining Rome's rulers.
Siege of Jerusalem and Destruction of the Second Temple
The siege of Jerusalem in 70 AD led to the sacking of the Second Temple and the dispersal of Jewish political power, known as the Jewish diaspora. This event was the culmination of the Jewish-Roman wars, which resulted from both political and religious conflicts. The destruction of the Temple was a defining moment in Jewish history and transformed Judaism permanently.
Opening of the Colosseum by Titus
To mark the opening of the Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheatre), Emperor Titus presented 100 days of arena events, with 3,000 gladiators competing on a single day. The Colosseum became the regular arena for blood sports in Rome and a symbol of Roman power and entertainment culture. Roman fascination with gladiators is indicated by how widely they are depicted on mosaics, wall paintings, lamps, and in graffiti.
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The Flavian Amphitheatre, more commonly known as the Colosseum
Roman Empire Reaches Greatest Territorial Extent Under Trajan
Rome reached its greatest territorial extent under Emperor Trajan, encompassing approximately 5 million km². The traditional population estimate of the empire accounted for between one-sixth and one-fourth of the world's total population. Trajan's expansionist policies represented the peak of Roman imperial power before a period of increasing consolidation and eventual decline.
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Bust of Emperor Trajan, under whom the Roman Empire reached its greatest territorial extent
Hadrian's Wall Constructed
Emperor Hadrian adopted a policy of maintaining rather than expanding the empire, and Hadrian's Wall was constructed to separate the Roman world from what was perceived as an ever-present barbarian threat in northern Britain. It is the primary surviving monument of Rome's frontier defense efforts. The wall represents the shift from expansionist to consolidationist imperial policy.
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A segment of the ruins of Hadrian's Wall in northern England, overlooking Crag Lough
Hadrian Visits Judaea and Refounds Jerusalem
Emperor Hadrian visited the region of Judaea in 129/130 AD and refounded Jerusalem as the Roman colony Aelia Capitolina, naming it after his family and the Capitoline Triad. The refoundation overlaid the destroyed Jewish city with a new Roman urban plan and included the construction of a Temple to Jupiter on the site of the former Jewish Temple. These measures, combined with restrictions on Jewish practices, helped spark the Bar Kokhba Revolt.
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Bust of Emperor Hadrian, who refounded Jerusalem as Aelia Capitolina
Bar Kokhba Revolt
Hadrian's measures in Judaea, combined with restrictions on Jewish practices, helped spark the Bar Kokhba Revolt from 132 to 135 AD. After crushing the uprising, Roman forces expelled most Jews from Jerusalem, barring their entry except on certain days. This revolt was the last major Jewish uprising against Roman rule and resulted in the near-complete dispersal of the Jewish population from Judaea.
Reign of Marcus Aurelius and the Five Good Emperors
The Nerva-Antonine dynasty produced the 'Five Good Emperors': Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius, representing a period of stable and effective governance. Marcus Aurelius was the last of these emperors, and his reign is often considered the end of the Pax Romana. Only two of his fourteen children are known to have reached adulthood, illustrating the harsh realities of ancient life even for the elite.
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Bust of Marcus Aurelius, the last of the Five Good Emperors
Accession of Commodus Marks Beginning of Decline
In 180 AD, the accession of Commodus marked what Greek historian Cassius Dio described as the descent 'from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron.' This comment led historians, notably Edward Gibbon, to take Commodus's reign as the beginning of the Empire's decline. The period of unprecedented stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana effectively ended.
Constitutio Antoniniana Grants Universal Citizenship
In 212 AD, during the reign of Caracalla, Roman citizenship was granted to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire through the Constitutio Antoniniana. This legal egalitarianism required a far-reaching revision of existing laws that distinguished between citizens and non-citizens. The extension of citizenship also seemed to increase the competitive urge among the upper classes to have their superiority affirmed within the justice system.
Crisis of the Third Century
The Empire was engulfed by the Crisis of the Third Century, a 49-year period of invasions, civil strife, economic disorder, and plague that threatened its very existence. The Gallic and Palmyrene empires broke away from the state, and a series of short-lived emperors led the Empire. This crisis sometimes marks the transition from classical to late antiquity in historical periodization.
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Map of barbarian invasions that contributed to the Crisis of the Third Century
Aurelian Reunifies the Empire
Emperor Aurelian stabilized the empire militarily and reunified it after the breakaway of the Gallic and Palmyrene empires during the Crisis of the Third Century. His reign also saw general economic anxieties come to a head, with bankers losing confidence in coins despite Roman coinage having long been fiat money. Aurelian's military successes earned him the title 'Restorer of the World'.
Diocletian Reorganizes the Empire and Establishes the Tetrarchy
Diocletian reorganized and restored much of the empire in 285 AD, dividing it into four regions each ruled by a separate tetrarch in what became known as the Tetrarchy. His reign also brought the empire's most concerted effort against Christianity, known as the 'Great Persecution.' Diocletian's efforts to stabilize the Empire after the Crisis of the Third Century included two major compilations of law, the Codex Gregorianus and the Codex Hermogenianus.
Diocletian's Great Persecution of Christians
From 303 to 311 AD, Diocletian undertook the most severe persecution of Christians in Roman history, known as the 'Great Persecution.' This represented the empire's most concerted effort against the perceived threat of Christianity. The persecution ultimately failed to suppress Christianity and may have strengthened Christian resolve and identity.
Constantine the Great Converts to Christianity
In the early 4th century, Constantine I became the first emperor to convert to Christianity, fundamentally transforming the relationship between the Roman state and the Christian religion. He supported the Church financially and made laws that favored it, though he never engaged in a purge of non-Christians. The new religion had already grown from less than 50,000 to over a million adherents between 150 and 250 AD.
Constantine Moves Imperial Seat to Constantinople
Constantine the Great moved the imperial seat from Rome to Byzantium in 330 AD and renamed it Constantinople. This decision shifted the center of imperial power to the east and established Constantinople as the new capital of the Eastern Empire. The city would remain the capital of the Byzantine Empire for over a thousand years.
Emperor Julian Attempts to Restore Traditional Religion
Emperor Julian, under the influence of his adviser Mardonius, attempted to restore Classical Roman and Hellenistic religion, only briefly interrupting the succession of Christian emperors. He banned Christians from teaching the classical curriculum and tried to revive traditional public sacrifice. Julian met Christian resistance and lack of popular support, and his reign was short-lived.
Theodosius I Makes Christianity the State Religion
Theodosius I, the last emperor to rule over both East and West, made Christianity the state religion before his death in 395 AD. He made multiple laws and acted against alternate forms of Christianity, and heretics were persecuted and killed by both the government and the church throughout late antiquity. This decision permanently transformed the religious character of the Roman Empire and its successors.
Roman Empire Divided into Eastern and Western Halves
During the decades of the Constantinian and Valentinian dynasties, the empire was divided along an east-west axis, with dual power centres in Constantinople and Rome. Theodosius I, the last emperor to rule over both East and West, died in 395 AD after making Christianity the state religion. After his death, the empire was permanently divided between his two sons.
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The administrative divisions of the Roman Empire in 395 AD
Western Roman Empire Begins to Disintegrate
The Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate in the early 5th century as Germanic peoples of dubious loyalty to Rome caused the empire to start dismembering itself. The Romans fought off all invaders, most famously Attila the Hun, but could not maintain cohesion. The Migration Period, involving large invasions by Germanic peoples and by the Huns of Attila, led to the accelerating decline of the Western Roman Empire.
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Map of barbarian invasions that led to the fall of the Western Roman Empire
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
With the fall of Ravenna to the Germanic Herulians and the deposition of Romulus Augustus in 476 by Odoacer, the Western Empire finally collapsed. Odoacer ended the Western Empire by declaring Zeno sole emperor and placing himself as Zeno's nominal subordinate, while in reality ruling Italy alone. Most chronologies place the end of the Western Roman Empire in this year, marking the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages.
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The Roman Empire by 476, noting western and eastern divisions at the time of the Western Empire's fall
Kushan Empire and Height of Gandharan Buddhism
The Kushan empire (30–375 CE) was formed by the invading Yuezhi nomads and eventually encompassed much of northern India, Pakistan and Afghanistan. During Kushan rule, Gandharan Buddhism was at the height of its influence and a significant number of Buddhist centers were built or renovated. The Buddhist art of Kushan Gandhara was a synthesis of Greco-Roman, Iranian and Indian elements.
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Map showing the Kushan territories and the maximum extent of Kushan dominions under Kanishka the Great, the height of Gandhāran Buddhist expansion.
Buddhism Introduced to China During Han Dynasty
Buddhism was introduced in China during the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) and was present by around 50 CE. The first documented Buddhist texts translated into Chinese are those of the Parthian An Shigao (148–180 CE). Early translators faced the difficulty of communicating foreign Buddhist concepts to the Chinese and often used Taoist terminology, a practice called 'concept-matching'.
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Map of the Han Empire, showing the political context in which Buddhism was first introduced to China.
Buddhism Spreads Along the Silk Road to Central Asia
Buddhism was present in Central Asia from about the second century BCE, but expanded significantly during the 1st century CE under the Kushans. The Sarvastivada school flourished in this region, and monks also brought Mahayana teachings. Buddhism eventually reached modern-day Pakistan, Kashmir, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan, with Buddhists translating texts into local languages.
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Map showing the extent of Buddhism and trade routes in the 1st century CE, illustrating the Silk Road transmission of Buddhism.
Emperor Kanishka's Support of Buddhism and Buddhist Council
Emperor Kanishka (128–151 CE) is particularly known for his support of Buddhism, building stupas and monasteries in Peshawar. He convened a major Buddhist council for the Sarvastivada tradition, gathering 500 learned monks to compile extensive commentaries on the Abhidharma. The main fruit of this council was the compilation of the vast Mahā-Vibhāshā commentary, and Kushan royal support allowed Gandharan Buddhism to spread along the Silk Road to Central Asia and China.
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Map of the Kushan Empire under Kanishka, showing the extent of his realm and the spread of Gandharan Buddhism.
Parthian An Shigao Translates Buddhist Texts into Chinese
The Parthian monk An Shigao (c. 148 CE) was among the first translators of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, playing a key role in the transmission of Buddhism to China. Central Asians, particularly Iranians, played a crucial role in this transmission, with thirty-seven early translators of Buddhist texts identified, the majority from the Iranian cultural sphere.
First Mahayana Scriptural Texts Translated into Chinese
The first known Mahāyāna scriptural texts were translations into Chinese by the Kushan monk Lokakṣema in Luoyang, between 178 and 189 CE. This marked a crucial step in the transmission of Mahayana Buddhism to East Asia. These translations helped establish Mahayana as a major tradition in China.
Buddhism Flourishes During the Gupta Empire
Buddhism continued to flourish in India during the Gupta Empire (4th–6th centuries), which brought order to much of north India. Gupta rulers such as Kumaragupta I enlarged Nālandā university, which became the largest and most influential Buddhist university in India for many centuries. Great Buddhist philosophers like Dignaga and Dharmakirti taught philosophy there, and the influence of the Gupta style of Buddhist art spread across Asia.
Buddhism Introduced to Korea
Buddhism was introduced to the Three Kingdoms of Korea beginning around 372 CE. During the 6th century, many Korean monks traveled to China and India to study Buddhism and various Korean Buddhist schools developed. Buddhism prospered in Korea during the North–South States Period (688–926) when it became a dominant force in society.
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The Tripitaka Koreana at Haeinsa, South Korea, representing the deep Buddhist heritage of Korea.
Chinese Monk Faxian Visits India
The Chinese pilgrim Faxian visited India during the reign of the Gupta emperor Chandragupta II in 405 CE, commenting on the prosperity and mild administration of the Gupta empire. His visit is an important record of Buddhism in India during the Gupta period. Chinese pilgrims like Faxian played a key role in transmitting Buddhist knowledge between India and China.
500 CE – 999 CE
Nika Riots in Constantinople
The Nika riots of 532 were one of the most violent riots in the history of Constantinople, demonstrating how spectacles could quickly become sites of social and political protest. Emperors sometimes had to deploy force to put down crowd unrest, most notoriously at this event. The riots resulted in the deaths of tens of thousands and nearly toppled Emperor Justinian.
Charlemagne Crowned as Roman Emperor
The Holy Roman Empire was established in 800 when Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as Roman emperor, claiming succession to the Roman imperial tradition in the West. This event represented one of several attempts by medieval states to claim the legacy of the Roman Empire. In the medieval West, 'Roman' came to mean the church and the Catholic Pope.
Buddhism Introduced to Japan
Buddhism was introduced to Japan in the 6th century by Korean monks bearing sutras and an image of the Buddha. During the Nara Period (710–794), Emperor Shōmu ordered the building of temples throughout his realm, and numerous temples and monasteries were built in the capital city of Nara. There was also a proliferation of Buddhist sects known as the Nanto Rokushū (the Six Nara Sects).
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The Great Buddha of Kamakura, representing the deep Buddhist heritage of Japan.
Buddhism Introduced to Tibet
Buddhism arrived in Tibet during the 7th century, primarily as a blend of Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna from the universities of the Pāla empire. From the outset, Buddhism was opposed by the native shamanistic Bon religion, but with royal patronage it thrived to a peak under King Rälpachän (817–836). Terminology in translation was standardized around 825, enabling a highly literal translation methodology.
Xuanzang Travels to India
The Chinese monk Xuanzang traveled to India during the Tang dynasty, bringing back 657 Buddhist texts along with relics and statues. He established a famed translation school in the Tang capital of Chang'an, focusing on Yogacara school texts. His travels provided invaluable records of Buddhism across India and Central Asia in the 7th century.
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Map of major Buddhist schools in South Asia at around the time of Xuanzang's visit in the seventh century.
Srivijaya Empire Adopts and Spreads Buddhism
The Malay Srivijaya (650–1377), a maritime empire centered on the island of Sumatra, adopted Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhism and spread Buddhism to Java, Malaya and other regions they conquered. The Chinese Buddhist Yijing described their capital at Palembang as a great center of Buddhist learning where the emperor supported over a thousand monks. Atiśa studied there before travelling to Tibet as a missionary.
Pāla Empire and Flourishing of Vajrayana Buddhism
The Pāla Empire (8th–12th centuries) in the Bengal region were staunch supporters of Buddhism, building several important Buddhist centers such as Vikramashila, Somapura and Odantapuri. At these great Buddhist centers, scholars developed the philosophies of Vajrayana, Abhidharma, Madhyamaka, Yogacara and Pramana. Under the Pālas, Vajrayana Buddhism flourished and spread to Tibet, Bhutan and Sikkim.
Founding of Kūkai's Shingon and Saichō's Tendai Schools in Japan
During the late Nara period, the key figures of Kūkai (774–835) and Saichō (767–822) founded the influential Japanese schools of Shingon and Tendai, respectively. An important doctrine for these schools was hongaku (innate awakening or original enlightenment), which was influential for all subsequent Japanese Buddhism. Buddhism also influenced the Japanese religion of Shinto, which incorporated Buddhist elements.
Borobudur Temple Complex Built in Java
The Mataram kingdom (732–1006) in Java promoted Mahayana Buddhist culture and is known for their monumental temple construction, especially the massive Borobudur, as well as Kalasan, Sewu, and Prambanan. Borobudur is one of the greatest Buddhist monuments in the world. This period represents the height of Buddhist culture in the Indonesian archipelago.
1000 CE – 1499 CE
Fall of Constantinople and End of the Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire survived for over a millennium after the fall of the Western Empire, until the city of Constantinople fell in 1453. Constantine XI Palaiologos, the last Roman emperor, died in battle against Mehmed II and his Ottoman forces during the siege of Constantinople. Mehmed II adopted the title of caesar in an attempt to claim a connection to the former Empire, and his claim was recognized by the Patriarchate of Constantinople.
King Anawrahta Adopts Theravada Buddhism in Burma
King Anawrahta (1044–1078), the founder of the Pagan Empire, adopted the Theravādin Buddhist faith from Sri Lanka, building numerous Buddhist temples at his capital of Pagan. This marked the beginning of Theravada's dominance in Burma. After invasions from the Burmese and the Mongols weakened Theravada in this region, it had to be reintroduced from Sri Lanka.
Jayavarman VII Builds Mahayana Buddhist Structures at Angkor
One of the greatest Khmer kings, Jayavarman VII (1181–1219), built large Mahāyāna Buddhist structures at Bayon and Angkor Thom. Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism were the main religions of the Khmer Empire (802–1431), which dominated most of the South-East Asian peninsula. Under the Khmer, numerous temples, both Hindu and Buddhist, were built in Cambodia and neighboring Thailand.
New Buddhist Schools Founded During Kamakura Period in Japan
During the Kamakura period (1185–1333), six new Buddhist schools were founded in Japan, known as 'New Buddhism' or Kamakura Buddhism. They include the influential Pure Land schools of Hōnen and Shinran, the Rinzai and Soto schools of Zen founded by Eisai and Dōgen, and the Lotus Sutra school of Nichiren. These schools competed with the older Nara schools and remain influential in Japanese Buddhism today.
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The Great Buddha of Kamakura, built during the Kamakura period, representing the flourishing of Buddhism in this era.
Destruction of Nālandā University by Turkic Raiders
A milestone in the decline of Indian Buddhism occurred in 1193 when Turkic Islamic raiders under Muhammad Khilji burnt Nālandā, the greatest Buddhist university in India. By the end of the 12th century, following the Islamic conquest of Buddhist strongholds in Bihar and Bengal by Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji, the practice of Buddhism retreated to the Himalayan foothills and Sri Lanka. This effectively ended Buddhism as a major religion in its homeland.
Kublai Khan Adopts Tibetan Buddhism and Yuan Dynasty
The emperors of the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) converted to Tibetan Buddhism, with Kublai Khan inviting lama Drogön Chögyal Phagpa of the Sakya school to spread Buddhism throughout his realm. Buddhism became the de facto state religion of the Yuan dynasty. In 1269, Kublai Khan commissioned Phagpa lama to design the 'Phags-pa script to unify the writing systems of the multilingual empire.
1500 CE – 1999 CE
Altan Khan and the Title of Dalai Lama
In 1578, Altan Khan invited the 3rd Dalai Lama, head of the rising Gelug lineage, to a summit, forming an alliance that gave Altan Khan legitimacy and provided the Buddhist school with protection and patronage. Altan Khan recognized Sonam Gyatso as a reincarnation of Phagpa lama and gave him the title of Dalai Lama ('Ocean Lama'), which his successors still hold. This meeting established the Gelug school's dominance and the institution of the Dalai Lama.
5th Buddhist Council in Burma
King Mindon (r. 1853–1878) convened the 5th Buddhist council (1868–71) in Burma, where different editions of the Pali Canon were cross-checked and a final version was inscribed on 729 stone slabs, currently still the world's largest book. This council was a major effort to preserve and standardize the Theravada Buddhist canon. A new meditation movement called the Vipassana movement also arose in Burma during this period.
Panadura Debate and Buddhist Modernism
By 1865, Buddhist monks in British Ceylon began a counter movement against Christian attacks, printing pamphlets and debating Christians in public. The famous Panadura debate in 1873 saw the monk Gunananda win a debate in front of a crowd of 10,000. This period saw the rise of Buddhist modernism, which tended to see the Buddha from a humanist point of view and claimed that Buddhism was a rational and scientific religion.
Sir Edwin Arnold Publishes 'The Light of Asia'
Sir Edwin Arnold's book-length poem The Light of Asia (1879), a life of the Buddha, was a successful early publication on Buddhism that led to much interest among English-speaking middle classes. This work, along with the scholarship of Hermann Oldenberg, T. W. Rhys Davids and F. Max Müller, was influential in introducing Buddhism to western audiences. The late 19th century also saw the first-known modern western conversions to Buddhism.
Henry Steel Olcott and Helena Blavatsky Convert to Buddhism
The late 19th century saw the first-known modern western conversions to Buddhism, including leading Theosophists Henry Steel Olcott and Helena Blavatsky in 1880 in Sri Lanka. The Theosophical Society was very influential in popularizing Indian religions in the west. Olcott (1832–1907) and Anagarika Dharmapala (1864–1933) promoted Buddhist schools, lay organizations and the printing of newspapers.
6th Buddhist Council in Burma
In 1956, Burmese politician U Nu presided over a sixth Buddhist council, which saw monks from various Theravada countries produce another new edition of the Pali Canon. This council was a major international effort to standardize and preserve the Theravada Buddhist canon. It represented a significant moment of cooperation among Theravada Buddhist nations.
B. R. Ambedkar and the Dalit Buddhist Movement
The lawyer B. R. Ambedkar (1891–1956), leader of the Dalit Buddhist movement, urged low caste Indian Dalits to convert to Buddhism, helping usher in a revival of Buddhism in India. This movement helped Buddhism become popular among some Indian intellectuals and marginalized communities. Ambedkar's conversion and advocacy represented a significant modern development in Indian Buddhism.
14th Dalai Lama Flees Tibet
Tibet remained a traditional theocratic state with the Dalai Lamas as heads of state from 1912 until the Chinese communist invasion in 1950. The 14th Dalai Lama fled the country in 1959, and a Tibetan exile community was established in India with its center at Dharamsala. The 14th Dalai Lama has become one of the most popular Buddhist leaders in the world today.
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The 14th Dalai Lama meeting with U.S. President Barack Obama in 2016, illustrating his continued global influence after fleeing Tibet.
Chinese Communist Cultural Revolution Destroys Buddhist Institutions
The Communist Cultural Revolution (1966–76) led to the closing of all Buddhist monasteries in China and widespread destruction of Buddhist institutions. During the Red Guard period (1966–67), Chinese communists also destroyed around 6,000 monasteries in Tibet along with their art and books, in an attempt to wipe out Tibetan Buddhist culture. However, since 1977, there has been a general shift in policy and Buddhist activity has been renewed.
Founding of the Insight Meditation Society
Theravada vipassana meditation was established in the West through the founding of institutions like the Insight Meditation Society in 1975. This was part of a broader wave of Buddhist institutions being established in the Western world, including Tibetan Buddhist centers and Zen centers. The Thai forest tradition also established communities in the US and UK during this period.
2000 CE – 2499 CE
Saffron Revolution in Burma
In 2007, Buddhist monks in Burma became involved in political protest movements in what became known as the Saffron Revolution. This represented a significant instance of Buddhist monks engaging in political activism in the modern era. The protests highlighted the ongoing role of Buddhism in Burmese society and politics.
Dalai Lama Meets U.S. President Barack Obama
The 14th Dalai Lama met with U.S. President Barack Obama in 2016, illustrating the global prominence of Tibetan Buddhism and the Dalai Lama's role as a world religious leader. This meeting reflects the broader integration of Buddhism into global political and cultural discourse in the modern era. The Dalai Lama has become one of the most recognized Buddhist figures in the world.
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The Dalai Lama meeting with U.S. President Barack Obama in 2016.