Comparing Timelines
Exploring the overlapping histories of "Ancient Egypt" and "Roman Empire".
Ancient Egypt
-3150 - 642
Roman Empire
-100 - 1453
7000 BCE
Neolithic Movement from Levant to Nile Valley
Archaeological and botanic evidence points to a Neolithic movement from the Levant region to the Nile Valley around 7,000 years ago. This migration brought Levantine ancestry to both Egyptian and Nubian populations, corresponding with the spread of agricultural practices and cultural exchange between regions.
3500 BCE
Development of Classical Egyptian Writing
Classical Egyptian became the standard language of writing, used for some of the best-known pieces of ancient Egyptian literature including the Pyramid and Coffin Texts. This writing system continued to be used until approximately 1300 BC.
3200 BCE
Development of Hieroglyphic Writing
Hieroglyphic writing emerged in ancient Egypt around 3200 BCE, composed of hundreds of symbols that could represent words, sounds, or silent determinatives. This formal script was used on stone monuments and in tombs and could be as detailed as individual works of art.
3100 BCE
Egyptian Settlement at Tell es-Sakan Established
Tell es-Sakan in present-day Gaza was established as an Egyptian settlement in the late 4th millennium BCE, theorized to have been the main Egyptian colonial site in the region. This represents early Egyptian expansion and trade networks into Canaan.
3000 BCE
Development of Advanced Shipbuilding in Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egyptians mastered advanced forms of shipbuilding, with the Abydos boats representing the oldest known planked ships. These vessels were constructed using wooden planks 'sewn' together with woven straps, with reeds or grass stuffed between planks to seal seams. This maritime technology enabled trade and expeditions throughout the ancient Near East.
Trade Established with Palestine and Nubia
During the Predynastic and First Dynasty periods, ancient Egyptians established trade with Nubia to obtain gold and incense, and with Palestine, as evidenced by Palestinian-style oil jugs found in First Dynasty pharaoh burials. An Egyptian colony was stationed in southern Canaan slightly before the First Dynasty.
Egyptian-Nubian Interactions Begin
Archaeological and historical evidence documents the beginning of interactions between Egyptian and Nubian populations more than 5000 years ago. These interactions ranged from peaceful coexistence to variably successful attempts of conquest, establishing a complex relationship that would continue throughout ancient Egyptian history.
2890 BCE
Trade with Byblos for Timber Established
By the Second Dynasty at latest, ancient Egyptian trade with Byblos yielded a critical source of quality timber not found in Egypt. This trade relationship was essential for Egyptian construction and shipbuilding.
2855 BCE
Old Kingdom Individual NUE001 - Genetic Evidence of Fertile Crescent Ancestry
A high-status Old Kingdom adult male (NUE001) from Nuwayrat, dated to 2855-2570 BC and attributed to the Third and Fourth Dynasty, provides the first whole-genome sequencing of early dynastic Egyptians. Analysis revealed approximately 80% North African Neolithic ancestry and 20% eastern Fertile Crescent ancestry (including Mesopotamia), providing direct evidence of ancient migration flows and cultural exchange between Mesopotamia and Egypt during this period.
2700 BCE
Construction of Djoser's Mortuary Complex
The world's first large-scale stone building was constructed, featuring post and lintel supports in the papyrus and lotus motif. The step pyramid of Djoser consisted of a series of stone mastabas stacked on top of each other, marking a revolutionary advancement in Egyptian architecture and establishing the pyramid form that would define the Old Kingdom.
2686 BCE
Establishment of Artistic Standards in Old Kingdom
During the Old Kingdom, Egyptian artists established artistic forms and iconography that would be followed for over 3,500 years. These standards included simple lines, flat areas of color, and characteristic flat projection of figures, creating a sense of order and balance that served political and religious purposes.
Establishment of Artistic Standards in Old Kingdom
During the Old Kingdom, Egyptian artists established artistic forms and iconography that would be followed for over 3,500 years. These standards included simple lines, flat areas of color, and characteristic flat projection of figures, creating a sense of order and balance that served political and religious purposes.
2667 BCE
Construction of Djoser's Mortuary Complex
Djoser's mortuary complex became the world's first large-scale stone building, featuring architectural elements including post and lintel supports in papyrus and lotus motifs. The step pyramid of Djoser consisted of stone mastabas stacked on top of each other.
2500 BCE
Construction of the Khufu Ship
A 43.6-meter vessel was sealed into a pit at the foot of the Great Pyramid of Giza during the Fourth Dynasty. This full-size ship demonstrates advanced shipbuilding techniques including mortise and tenon joints for fastening planks together, and may have served the symbolic function of a solar barque. The ship represents the pinnacle of Old Kingdom maritime engineering.
Discovery of Ancient Red Sea Port at Wadi el-Jarf
In 2013, Franco-Egyptian archaeologists discovered what is believed to be the world's oldest port, dating to the time of King Khufu. Located on the Red Sea coast about 110 miles south of Suez, this port provides evidence of ancient Egypt's seafaring capabilities and maritime trade networks during the Old Kingdom period.
Construction of the Khufu Ship
A 43.6-meter vessel was sealed into a pit at the foot of the Great Pyramid of Giza during the Fourth Dynasty. This full-size ship demonstrates advanced shipbuilding techniques including mortise and tenon joints for fastening planks together, and may have served the symbolic function of a solar barque. The ship represents the pinnacle of Old Kingdom maritime engineering.
Discovery of Ancient Red Sea Port at Wadi el-Jarf
In 2013, Franco-Egyptian archaeologists discovered what is believed to be the world's oldest port, dating to the time of King Khufu. Located on the Red Sea coast about 110 miles south of Suez, this port provides evidence of ancient Egypt's seafaring capabilities and maritime trade networks during the Old Kingdom period.
2494 BCE
Trade with Punt Established
By the Fifth Dynasty, trade with the Land of Punt provided Egypt with gold, aromatic resins, ebony, ivory, and wild animals such as monkeys and baboons. This became one of Egypt's most important trade relationships.
2055 BCE
Introduction of Wooden Tomb Models in Middle Kingdom
During the Middle Kingdom, wooden or clay models depicting scenes from everyday life became popular additions to tombs. These models showed laborers, houses, boats, and military formations, representing the ideal ancient Egyptian afterlife.
Popularization of Tomb Models in Middle Kingdom
During the Middle Kingdom, wooden or clay models depicting scenes from everyday life became popular additions to tombs. These models showed laborers, houses, boats, and military formations, representing an attempt to duplicate the activities of the living in the afterlife and providing valuable insights into daily life in ancient Egypt.
Introduction of Wooden Tomb Models in Middle Kingdom
During the Middle Kingdom, wooden or clay models depicting scenes from everyday life became popular additions to tombs. These models showed laborers, houses, boats, and military formations, representing the ideal ancient Egyptian afterlife.
1650 BCE
Hyksos Invasion and Introduction of Minoan Art
After the invasion of the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period, Minoan-style frescoes appeared in Avaris, representing one of the rare instances of foreign artistic influence on Egyptian art. This period also saw the introduction of chariots to Egyptian military technology.
1600 BCE
Creation of Edwin Smith and Ebers Medical Papyri
The Edwin Smith and Ebers papyri represent the earliest attested examples of traditional empiricism in medicine, first credited to Egypt. These medical texts demonstrate empirical knowledge of anatomy, injuries, and practical treatments including wound care, surgical procedures, and pain management. The Edwin Smith papyrus specifically describes anatomy and medical treatments in hieratic script.
Creation of Edwin Smith and Ebers Medical Papyri
The Edwin Smith and Ebers papyri represent the earliest attested examples of traditional empiricism in medicine, first credited to Egypt. These medical texts demonstrate empirical knowledge of anatomy, injuries, and practical treatments including wound care, surgical procedures, and pain management. The Edwin Smith papyrus specifically describes anatomy and medical treatments in hieratic script.
1550 BCE
Establishment of Deir el-Medina Workers' Village
The workers' village of Deir el-Medina was established and occupied for almost 400 years, providing one of the most thoroughly documented accounts of community life in the ancient world. The site offers unparalleled insight into the organization, social interactions, and living conditions of an ancient Egyptian community.
Perfection of Mummification Techniques
By the New Kingdom, ancient Egyptians had perfected the art of mummification. The best technique took 70 days and involved removing internal organs, extracting the brain through the nose, and desiccating the body in natron. This represented the pinnacle of Egyptian funerary practices.
Perfection of Mummification Techniques
By the New Kingdom, ancient Egyptians had perfected the art of mummification. The best technique took 70 days and involved removing internal organs, extracting the brain through the nose, and desiccating the body in natron. The body was then wrapped in linen with protective amulets and placed in a decorated anthropoid coffin.
Perfection of Mummification Techniques
By the New Kingdom, ancient Egyptians had perfected the art of mummification. The best technique took 70 days and involved removing internal organs, extracting the brain through the nose, and desiccating the body in natron. This represented the pinnacle of Egyptian funerary practices.
Development of New Kingdom Temple Architecture
In the New Kingdom, architects revolutionized temple design by adding the pylon, open courtyard, and enclosed hypostyle hall to the front of temple sanctuaries. This architectural style became standard until the Greco-Roman period and represented the pinnacle of Egyptian temple design.
Development of Temple Architecture in New Kingdom
In the New Kingdom, architects added the pylon, open courtyard, and enclosed hypostyle hall to the front of temple sanctuaries. This architectural style became standard until the Greco-Roman period and defined Egyptian temple design.
Introduction of New Musical Instruments
In the New Kingdom, Egyptians expanded their musical repertoire by playing bells, cymbals, tambourines, and drums, and importing lutes and lyres from Asia. This represented increased cultural exchange and the enrichment of Egyptian musical traditions.
Introduction of Shabti Statues in Burials
Beginning in the New Kingdom, shabti statues were included in burials. These figurines were believed to perform manual labor for the deceased in the afterlife, reflecting evolving beliefs about the nature of the afterlife and the needs of the dead.
Discovery of Ancient Harbor at Mersa Gawasis
In 2011, archaeologists from Italy, the United States, and Egypt excavating at Mersa Gawasis unearthed traces of an ancient harbor that launched early voyages onto the open ocean, including Hatshepsut's Punt expedition. Evidence included large ship timbers and hundreds of feet of papyrus ropes coiled in huge bundles, demonstrating the Egyptians' seafaring prowess.
Development of Temple Architecture in New Kingdom
In the New Kingdom, architects added the pylon, open courtyard, and enclosed hypostyle hall to the front of temple sanctuaries. This architectural style became standard until the Greco-Roman period and defined Egyptian temple design.
1353 BCE
Amarna Period Artistic Revolution
During the Amarna Period, artistic forms were radically altered to conform to Akhenaten's revolutionary religious ideas. This style, known as Amarna art, represented the most striking example of politically driven change in Egyptian artistic forms, though it was quickly abandoned after Akhenaten's death.
1300 BCE
Emergence of Late Egyptian Language
Late Egyptian became the spoken language from the New Kingdom onward and was represented in Ramesside administrative documents, love poetry, tales, and later in Demotic and Coptic texts. This marked a significant linguistic evolution in Egyptian civilization.
Classical Egyptian as Written Language Declines
Classical Egyptian, which had been the language of writing for major literary works including the Pyramid and Coffin Texts, continued to be used until about 1300 BCE. After this period, Late Egyptian became more prevalent in written documents.
Emergence of Late Egyptian Language
Late Egyptian became the spoken language from the New Kingdom onward and was represented in Ramesside administrative documents, love poetry, tales, and later in Demotic and Coptic texts. This marked a significant linguistic evolution in Egyptian civilization.
1078 BCE
Death of Ramesses XI and Division of Egypt
Following the death of Ramesses XI, Egypt became divided with Smendes assuming authority over northern Egypt from Tanis, while the High Priests of Amun at Thebes effectively controlled the south, recognizing Smendes in name only. This marked the beginning of the Third Intermediate Period.
1077 BCE
Shift to Direct Worship of Gods
After the New Kingdom, the pharaoh's role as a spiritual intermediary was de-emphasized as religious customs shifted to direct worship of the gods. Priests developed a system of oracles to communicate the will of the gods directly to the people, representing a significant change in Egyptian religious practice.
945 BCE
Shoshenq I Founds Libyan Dynasty
Libyan princes took control of the delta under Shoshenq I, founding the Libyan or Bubastite dynasty that would rule for approximately 200 years. Shoshenq also gained control of southern Egypt by placing family members in important priestly positions.
787 BCE
Abusir el-Meleq Genetic Study Period
Partial genomic analyses of specimens from Abusir el-Meleq covering the period from 787 BC to 23 AD (Pre-Ptolemaic to Ptolemaic periods) revealed genetic continuity between ancient and modern Egyptians, as well as close genetic affinity with Middle Eastern populations, especially ancient Levantine groups.
727 BCE
Kushite King Piye Invades Egypt
The Kushite king Piye invaded northward from the south, seizing control of Thebes and eventually the Delta, establishing the 25th Dynasty. This marked the beginning of Kushite rule over Egypt.
700 BCE
Development of Demotic Script for Popular Literature
From about 700 BC, narrative stories, instructions such as the Instructions of Onchsheshonqy, and personal and business documents began to be written in demotic script. This represented a shift toward more accessible writing for everyday purposes.
Demotic Script Becomes Prevalent for Narrative Writing
From about 700 BCE, narrative stories and instructions, such as the popular Instructions of Onchsheshonqy, as well as personal and business documents were written in the demotic script and phase of Egyptian. This represented a significant shift in Egyptian writing practices.
Development of Demotic Script for Popular Literature
From about 700 BC, narrative stories, instructions such as the Instructions of Onchsheshonqy, and personal and business documents began to be written in demotic script. This represented a shift toward more accessible writing for everyday purposes.
690 BCE
Pharaoh Taharqa Creates Vast Empire
During the 25th Dynasty, Pharaoh Taharqa created an empire nearly as large as the New Kingdom's. Twenty-fifth Dynasty pharaohs built or restored temples and monuments throughout the Nile valley, including at Memphis, Karnak, Kawa, and Jebel Barkal. The Nile valley saw the first widespread construction of pyramids since the Middle Kingdom.
671 BCE
Assyrian Conquest of Egypt Begins
Between 671 and 667 BC, the Assyrians began their conquest of Egypt. The reigns of both Taharqa and his successor Tanutamun were filled with frequent conflict with the Assyrians. Ultimately, the Assyrians pushed the Kushites back into Nubia, occupied Memphis, and sacked the temples of Thebes.
653 BCE
Psamtik I Ousts Assyrians with Greek Mercenaries
By 653 BC, the Saite king Psamtik I was able to oust the Assyrians with the help of Greek mercenaries, who were recruited to form Egypt's first navy. This marked the beginning of the Late Period and the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty. Greek influence expanded greatly as Naucratis became the home of Greeks in the Nile Delta.
525 BCE
Persian Conquest of Egypt
In 525 BC, the Persian Empire, led by Cambyses II, began its conquest of Egypt, eventually defeating pharaoh Psamtik III at the Battle of Pelusium. Cambyses II assumed the formal title of pharaoh but ruled Egypt from Iran, leaving Egypt under the control of a satrap. This began the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty.
402 BCE
End of First Persian Rule
The first period of Persian rule over Egypt, also known as the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty, ended in 402 BC when Egypt regained independence under a series of native dynasties.
343 BCE
Brief Restoration of Persian Rule
A brief restoration of Persian rule, sometimes known as the Thirty-First Dynasty, began in 343 BC. This marked the end of the last native royal house of ancient Egypt, which had ended with the kingship of Nectanebo II of the Thirtieth Dynasty.
332 BCE
Alexander the Great Conquers Egypt
In 332 BC, Alexander the Great conquered Egypt with little resistance from the Persians and was welcomed by the Egyptians as a deliverer. The Persian ruler Mazaces handed Egypt over to Alexander without a fight, ending Persian rule and beginning the Ptolemaic period.
Establishment of Ptolemaic Kingdom
The administration established by Alexander's successors, the Macedonian Ptolemaic Kingdom, was based on an Egyptian model and centered in the new capital city of Alexandria. The city showcased Hellenistic power and became a center of learning and culture, including the famous Library of Alexandria and the Mouseion. The Lighthouse of Alexandria facilitated trade through the city.
200 BCE
Development of Meroitic Script
The Meroitic script, based on Egyptian writing, began to be used from the 2nd century BC. It represents the oldest written language in Africa other than Egyptian and was used until the early 5th century AD by the Kingdom of Kush and Meroë, demonstrating Egypt's lasting cultural influence on neighboring civilizations.
Adoption of Greek Heroic Nudity in Roman Portraiture
As early as the 2nd century BC, Greek heroic nudity was adopted for portraiture of conquering Roman generals, marking a significant shift in Roman artistic conventions and the integration of Greek cultural elements into Roman imperial imagery.
100 BCE
Rome Controls Most of the Mediterranean
By 100 BC, the city of Rome had expanded its rule from the Italian peninsula to most of the Mediterranean and beyond, establishing itself as a dominant power in the ancient world.
Origin of Glassblowing in Syria
Glassblowing was regarded by the Romans as originating in Syria in the 1st century BC, marking a revolutionary development in decorative arts and manufacturing. This technique would spread throughout the Empire and transform glass production.
44 BCE
Assassination of Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar, who had become perpetual dictator, was assassinated by a faction that opposed his concentration of power. This event triggered a series of civil wars that would ultimately lead to the end of the Roman Republic.
42 BCE
Battle of Philippi
The faction that assassinated Julius Caesar was driven from Rome and defeated at the Battle of Philippi by Mark Antony and Caesar's adopted son Octavian, consolidating their power over the Roman world.
31 BCE
Battle of Actium
Octavian's forces defeated those of Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium, ending the division of the Roman world and paving the way for Octavian's sole rule.
30 BCE
Egypt Becomes Roman Province
Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire in 30 BC, following the defeat of Mark Antony and Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII by Octavian (later Emperor Augustus) in the Battle of Actium. The Romans relied heavily on grain shipments from Egypt, and Alexandria became an increasingly important center on the trade route with the orient.
Roman Period Population Admixture
Beginning in the Roman period, modern Egyptians and Nubians underwent subsequent admixture events, contributing both Sub-Saharan African-like and West Asian-like ancestries. This demographic shift was significantly influenced by the African Slave Trade and the Spread of Islam.
28 BCE
Census of 28 BC Reveals Large Equestrian Class
The census of 28 BC uncovered large numbers of men who qualified for equestrian status based on property requirements of 400,000 sesterces and three generations of free birth. This census helped formalize the equestrian order in the early Imperial period.
27 BCE
Augustus Becomes First Roman Emperor
The Roman Senate granted Octavian the title Augustus and made him princeps with proconsular imperium, marking his accession as the first Roman emperor and beginning the Principate, the first epoch of Roman imperial history.
Establishment of the Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was formally established, marking the transition from the Roman Republic to imperial rule. This foundational event began a period of centralized authority that would last for centuries.
Golden Age of Latin Literature Under Augustus
Literature under Augustus, along with that of the Republic, was viewed as the 'Golden Age' of Latin literature, embodying classical ideals. The three most influential Classical Latin poets—Virgil, Horace, and Ovid—belong to this period. Virgil's Aeneid became a national epic, while Ovid's Metamorphoses became a primary source for later classical mythology.
2 CE
Lex Fufia Caninia Limits Manumission of Slaves
A law (Lex Fufia Caninia) was enacted limiting the number of slaves an owner was allowed to free in his will. This legislation responded to the increasing frequency of manumission in Roman society, attempting to control the rate at which slaves could gain freedom.
9 CE
Battle of the Teutoburg Forest
Germanic tribes wiped out three Roman legions in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, a catastrophic defeat that led Augustus to increase the number of legions from 25 to around 30. This battle marked a significant setback in Roman expansion into Germania and established the Rhine as a long-term frontier.
14 CE
Census Records Thousand Equestrians in Major Cities
The census of 14 AD revealed large numbers of men who qualified for equestrian status, with a thousand equestrians registered at Cádiz and Padua alone. This demonstrates the expansion of the equestrian order and social mobility in the early Empire.
27 CE
Beginning of Pax Romana under Augustus
The 200-year period known as the Pax Romana (Roman Peace) begins with Augustus's rule, marking an era of unprecedented social stability and economic prosperity throughout the Roman Empire. This period established principles of dynastic succession and saw the cohesion of the empire strengthened.
Augustus' Urban Renewal Programme in Rome
Augustus undertook a vast building programme in Rome, reorganizing the city into neighbourhoods (vici) with local police and firefighting services. He created monumental architecture including the Campus Martius with the Altar of Augustan Peace and an Egyptian obelisk used as a horologium pointer. Rome's population grew to as many as one million people during this period.
Public Entertainment Expansion Under Augustus
Under Augustus, public entertainments were presented on 77 days of the year, including circus games, chariot races, gladiator combat, and theatrical events. This established the pattern of state-sponsored entertainment that would characterize Roman urban life.
33 CE
Credit Crisis in the Roman Empire
A serious credit shortage occurred in the early Roman Empire, representing the only known major financial crisis of this period. This event demonstrated the vulnerability of the Roman financial system despite generally having available capital that exceeded borrower needs.
50 CE
Christianity Takes Root in Egypt
From the mid-first century AD, Christianity took root in Egypt and was originally seen as another cult that could be accepted. However, it was an uncompromising religion that sought to win converts from pagan Egyptian and Greco-Roman religions, threatening popular religious traditions.
Christianity Takes Root in Egypt
Christianity began to take root in Egypt from the mid-first century AD. Initially seen as another acceptable cult, it became an uncompromising religion that sought converts from pagan Egyptian and Greco-Roman religions, threatening popular religious traditions.
Coptic Alphabet Begins to Be Used
Around the first century AD, the Coptic alphabet started to be used alongside the Demotic script. Coptic is a modified Greek alphabet with the addition of some Demotic signs, representing a major transition in Egyptian writing systems.
Silver Age of Latin Literature
The mid-1st through mid-2nd century was conventionally called the 'Silver Age' of Latin literature. Leading writers included Seneca, Lucan, Petronius, Martial, Statius, Pliny the Elder and Younger, and the historian Tacitus. This period saw diverse literary achievements despite political pressures.
Southern Gaul Becomes Leading Pottery Producer
Southern Gaul emerged as a leading producer of fine red-gloss pottery (terra sigillata), which became a major trade good in 1st-century Europe. This development stimulated new regional centers of production and was economically important for the Empire.
54 CE
Pompeian Fourth Style Wall Painting
The Wedding of Zephyrus and Chloris from the Casa del Naviglio represents the Pompeian Fourth Style of wall painting (54-68 AD), featuring elaborate painted architectural panels. This artistic style flourished during the Neronian era before being preserved by the eruption of Vesuvius.
69 CE
Year of the Four Emperors
The Julio-Claudian dynasty ended in 69 AD with the strife-torn Year of the Four Emperors, a period of civil war from which Vespasian emerged as victor and founder of the Flavian dynasty.
Year of the Four Emperors
The Julio-Claudian dynasty ends after Nero, yielding to a period of civil strife known as the Year of the Four Emperors. Vespasian emerges victorious from this conflict and establishes the brief Flavian dynasty.
75 CE
Vespasian Endows Academic Chairs at Rome
Emperor Vespasian endowed chairs of grammar, Latin and Greek rhetoric, and philosophy at Rome, following the Hellenistic model. He also gave secondary teachers special exemptions from taxes and legal penalties, promoting higher education throughout the Empire.
80 CE
Opening of the Colosseum with 100 Days of Games
Emperor Titus marked the opening of the Flavian Amphitheatre (Colosseum) with an unprecedented 100 days of arena events, featuring 3,000 gladiators competing on a single day. This massive spectacle demonstrated the scale and importance of public entertainment in Roman society and established the Colosseum as the regular arena for blood sports in Rome.
Opening of the Colosseum
Emperor Titus marked the opening of the Flavian Amphitheatre (Colosseum) with an unprecedented 100 days of arena events, featuring 3,000 gladiators competing on a single day. The Colosseum became the regular arena for blood sports in Rome and symbolized Roman imperial power and entertainment culture.
100 CE
Second Sophistic Cultural Movement
The cultural movement known as the Second Sophistic (1st-3rd century AD) promoted the assimilation of Greek and Roman social, educational, and aesthetic values. This movement significantly influenced education, literature, and cultural identity throughout the Empire.
117 CE
Roman Empire Reaches Maximum Territorial Extent
Under Emperor Trajan, the Roman Empire reaches its largest expanse, encompassing 5 million square kilometers. The empire at this time accounted for between one-sixth and one-fourth of the world's total population, making it the most populous unified political entity in the West until the mid-19th century.
Reign of Emperor Hadrian
Hadrian ruled the Roman Empire from 117 to 138 AD, a period during which the Roman legions were strategically deployed throughout the empire. His reign is noted for consolidating Roman frontiers and establishing defensive boundaries, including the famous Hadrian's Wall in Britain.
129 CE
Hadrian Refounds Jerusalem as Aelia Capitolina
Emperor Hadrian visited Judaea and refounded Jerusalem as the Roman colony Aelia Capitolina, overlaying the destroyed Jewish city with a new Roman urban plan and constructing a Temple to Jupiter on the site of the former Jewish Temple. This marked a decisive turning point in Jewish-Roman relations.
130 CE
Hadrian Refounds Jerusalem as Aelia Capitolina
Emperor Hadrian visits Judaea and refounds Jerusalem as the Roman colony Aelia Capitolina, naming it after his family (Aelius) and the Capitoline Triad. The refoundation overlays the destroyed Jewish city with a new Roman urban plan and includes construction of a Temple to Jupiter on the site of the former Jewish Temple, marking a decisive turning point in Jewish-Roman relations.
132 CE
Bar Kokhba Revolt
Hadrian's refoundation of Jerusalem and restrictions on Jewish practices sparked the Bar Kokhba Revolt. After crushing the uprising, Roman forces expelled most Jews from Jerusalem, barring their entry except on certain days, and rebuilt the city as a statement of imperial power.
Bar Kokhba Revolt
A major Jewish uprising against Roman rule sparked by Hadrian's refounding of Jerusalem and restrictions on Jewish practices. After crushing the revolt, Roman forces expelled most Jews from Jerusalem, barring their entry except on certain days, and rebuilt the city as a statement of imperial power and domination.
136 CE
Sestertius Coinage Under Hadrian
During Hadrian's reign (circa 134-138 AD), the Roman Empire continued its sophisticated three-tier currency system. The sestertius, a brass coin, was a key denomination used for everyday transactions and served as the standard unit for reckoning accounts, rents, and public fees throughout the Empire.
138 CE
Reign of Antoninus Pius
Antoninus Pius served as Roman Emperor, representing the height of the Antonine dynasty. During this period, the Senate maintained significant influence in policy discussions, though equestrians were playing an increasingly important role in the emperor's council (consilium).
Currency Debasement under Antonine and Severan Dynasties
Emperors of the Antonine and Severan dynasties began debasing the currency, particularly the denarius, under pressure to meet military payrolls. This marked the beginning of monetary instability that would plague the later Empire.
150 CE
Peak and Decline of Roman Mining Operations
Intensive large-scale mining of alluvial deposits through open-cast and underground mining took place from the reign of Augustus up to the early 3rd century. Around the mid-2nd century, Roman metal production reached its peak with iron output estimated at 82,500 tonnes annually and silver stock at 10,000 tonnes. The instability of the Empire in the early 3rd century disrupted production, ending this period of proto-industrial scale extraction.
160 CE
Galen's Medical Writings on Nutrition and Health
The physician Galen wrote extensively on the importance of good diet to health, influencing Roman medical understanding. His views on nutrition were shaped by humoral theory and became foundational to Roman medical practice.
161 CE
Expansion of Entertainment Days Under Marcus Aurelius
By the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD), public entertainments had expanded to 135 days per year, nearly doubling from the 77 days under Augustus. This expansion reflected the growing importance of spectacles in Roman society and imperial politics.
170 CE
Expansion of Public Entertainment Days under Marcus Aurelius
By the reign of Marcus Aurelius, public entertainments had expanded to 135 days per year, up from 77 days under Augustus. This expansion reflected the growing importance of 'bread and circuses' in maintaining social order and the emperor's relationship with the populace.
Entertainment Days Expand to 135 Under Marcus Aurelius
By the reign of Marcus Aurelius, public entertainments had expanded from Augustus' 77 days to 135 days per year, demonstrating the increasing importance of state-sponsored spectacles in maintaining social order and imperial legitimacy.
180 CE
Accession of Commodus
The accession of Commodus in 180 marked what contemporary historian Cassius Dio described as the descent 'from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron,' signaling the beginning of the Empire's decline.
Accession of Commodus
The accession of Commodus marks what contemporary historian Cassius Dio described as the descent 'from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron.' This event has led some historians, notably Edward Gibbon, to consider Commodus' reign as the beginning of the Empire's decline.
Currency Debasement Under Antonine and Severan Dynasties
Emperors of the Antonine and Severan dynasties debased Roman currency, particularly the denarius, under the pressures of meeting military payrolls. This marked the beginning of a long-term decline in the integrity of Roman coinage that would contribute to later economic instability.
Sudden Inflation under Commodus
During the reign of Emperor Commodus, sudden inflation severely damaged the Roman credit market, contributing to economic instability and foreshadowing the financial troubles of the third century.
185 CE
Sudden Inflation Under Commodus
During the reign of Emperor Commodus (180-192 AD), sudden inflation damaged the Roman credit market. This economic disruption was part of the broader pattern of currency debasement and foreshadowed the more severe economic crises of the 3rd century.
193 CE
Italians Become Minority in Senate Under Severan Dynasty
By the Severan dynasty (193–235 AD), Italians made up less than half the Senate for the first time. This marked a significant shift in the composition of Roman political leadership, reflecting the increasing provincialization of the Empire and the rise of provincial elites to positions of power.
200 CE
Egypt and Rhineland Glass Production Centers
By the 3rd century AD, Egypt and the Rhineland had become noted centers for fine glass production, demonstrating the spread of glassblowing technology and the development of regional manufacturing specializations throughout the Roman Empire.
Christian Authors Engage with Classical Tradition
From the 2nd to the 4th centuries, Christian authors were in active dialogue with the classical tradition. Tertullian was one of the earliest prose authors with a distinctly Christian voice. After Constantine's conversion, Latin literature became dominated by the Christian perspective.
212 CE
Caracalla Grants Universal Roman Citizenship
During the reign of Caracalla, Roman citizenship was granted to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire, a major expansion of civic rights throughout the Roman world.
Universal Roman Citizenship Granted
During the reign of Caracalla, Roman citizenship is granted to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire through the Constitutio Antoniniana. This represents a fundamental transformation in the legal and social structure of the Roman Empire.
Granting of Universal Citizenship
Universal citizenship was granted throughout the Roman Empire in 212 AD (likely referring to the Constitutio Antoniniana). This major legal reform increased competitive urges among the upper classes to affirm their superiority, particularly within the justice system, leading to greater inequality in legal treatment between honestiores and humiliores.
Extension of Universal Citizenship
The Roman Empire extended universal citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Empire in 212 AD. This landmark legal reform required the uniform application of Roman law throughout the Empire, replacing local law codes that had previously applied to non-citizens. This represented a fundamental transformation in Roman legal and social structure.
Constitutio Antoniniana Extends Citizenship Throughout Empire
The Constitutio Antoniniana extended Roman citizenship to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire. This landmark legal reform represented a fundamental shift toward legal egalitarianism and required a far-reaching revision of existing laws that had distinguished between citizens and non-citizens. It marked a major transformation in Roman legal and social structure.
235 CE
Crisis of the Third Century
The Empire was engulfed by a 49-year crisis that threatened its existence due to civil war, plagues, and barbarian invasions. The Gallic and Palmyrene empires broke away from the state, and a series of short-lived emperors led the Empire before it was reunified under Aurelian.
Crisis of the Third Century
Following the collapse of the Severan dynasty, the Empire is engulfed by the Crisis of the Third Century, a period of invasions, civil strife, economic disorder, and plague. This crisis sometimes marks the transition from Classical to Late Antiquity in historical periodization.
Literacy Begins to Decline During Crisis of the Third Century
Literacy began to decline during the Crisis of the Third Century, marking a significant cultural shift. This decline continued as the Western Roman Empire weakened, with reading becoming rarer even among the Church hierarchy, though literacy continued in the Byzantine Empire.
Disruption of Large-Scale Mining Operations
Intensive large-scale mining of precious and base metals, which had taken place from the reign of Augustus, came to an end in the early 3rd century when the instability of the Empire disrupted production. This marked the end of proto-industrial scale metal extraction that had been unmatched until the Industrial Revolution.
250 CE
Sharp Contraction of Specie Supply
In the mid-200s AD, the supply of specie (coined money) contracted sharply, marking a significant deterioration in the Roman monetary system and contributing to broader economic problems.
Contraction of Specie Supply
In the mid-200s AD, the supply of specie (coined money) contracted sharply. This monetary crisis was a precursor to the broader Crisis of the Third Century and significantly impacted trade and economic stability throughout the Empire.
260 CE
Economic Collapse During Crisis of the Third Century
The Crisis of the Third Century brought severe economic disruption including reductions in long-distance trade, disruption of mining operations, and the physical transfer of gold coinage outside the empire by invading enemies. These conditions greatly diminished the money supply and devastated the banking sector, representing one of the most severe economic crises in Roman history.
270 CE
Aurelian Reforms the Grain Dole with Bread Distribution
By the reign of Aurelian, the state began distributing the annona as a daily ration of bread baked in state factories, and added olive oil, wine, and pork to the dole. This represented a significant expansion of the state welfare system beyond the earlier grain distribution.
272 CE
Banking Crisis Under Aurelian
Under Emperor Aurelian (270-275 AD), general economic anxieties came to a head and bankers lost confidence in coins, despite Roman coinage having long been fiat money. This crisis marked a critical point in the decline of the Roman monetary and banking system.
284 CE
Diocletian's Reforms and Decline of Greek Knowledge in West
Following Diocletian's administrative reforms in the 3rd century CE, there was a notable decline in the knowledge of Greek in the western parts of the empire, marking a linguistic shift in the Roman world.
285 CE
Diocletian Reorganizes the Empire
Diocletian reorganized and restored much of the empire in 285, dividing it into four regions each ruled by a separate tetrarch. His reign also brought the empire's most concerted effort against Christianity, the 'Great Persecution.'
Diocletian's Reforms and Reorganization
Diocletian reorganizes and restores much of the empire, dividing it into four regions each ruled by a separate tetrarch (the Tetrarchy system). His reign also brings the empire's most concerted effort against Christianity, known as the 'Great Persecution.'
291 CE
Compilation of Codex Gregorianus and Codex Hermogenianus
As part of Emperor Diocletian's efforts to stabilize the Empire after the Crisis of the Third Century, two major compilations of law were produced in four years: the Codex Gregorianus and the Codex Hermogenianus. These legal codes were designed to guide provincial administrators in setting consistent legal standards across the empire.
292 CE
Italy Loses Tax Privileges Under Diocletian
Under Emperor Diocletian, Italy lost its traditional immunity from property tax and poll tax, privileges it had enjoyed along with some favored provincial communities during the High Empire. Italy was subdivided into provinces, marking the end of its special legal and fiscal status and representing a fundamental shift in the administrative structure of the empire.
294 CE
Diocletian's Monetary Reforms and Introduction of the Solidus
Emperor Diocletian introduced the gold solidus and implemented monetary reforms in an attempt to stabilize the Roman economy. However, despite these efforts, the credit market of the Empire never recovered its former robustness, marking a permanent shift in the Roman economic system.
300 CE
Codex Replaces the Scroll
By the end of the 3rd century, the codex (pages bound to a spine) was replacing the traditional papyrus roll (volumen) as the primary book format. Though still a novelty in the 1st century, this innovation transformed how texts were produced and consumed throughout the Empire.
303 CE
Great Purges of Diocletian Begin
The persecution of converts to Christianity culminated in the great purges of Diocletian starting in 303 AD. Despite this persecution, Christianity eventually won out over traditional Egyptian and Greco-Roman religions.
Great Purges of Diocletian
The persecution of Christians in Egypt culminated in the great purges initiated by Emperor Diocletian starting in 303 AD. Despite these persecutions, Christianity eventually prevailed in Egypt.
312 CE
Constantine Converts to Christianity
Constantine the Great becomes the first emperor to convert to Christianity and establishes Constantinople as the new capital of the Eastern Empire. This marks a fundamental transformation in the religious character of the Roman Empire.
330 CE
Constantine Establishes Constantinople
Constantine the Great, the first emperor to convert to Christianity, moved the imperial seat from Rome to Byzantium in 330 and renamed it Constantinople, establishing it as the new capital of the Eastern Empire.
337 CE
Solidus Coinage Under Constantine II
The solidus continued to be issued under Constantine II, featuring Victoria (Victory) on the reverse - one of the last pagan deities to appear on Roman coins. This imagery gradually transformed into Christian angel iconography, reflecting the religious transformation of the Empire under Christian rule.
362 CE
Emperor Julian Bans Christians from Teaching Classical Curriculum
Emperor Julian banned Christians from teaching the classical curriculum in an attempt to preserve traditional Roman education. However, Church Fathers and other Christians adopted Latin and Greek literature, philosophy, and science in biblical interpretation, ensuring the continuation of classical learning.
380 CE
Transition from Communal to Individual Bathing
In the late 4th century, individual tubs began to replace communal bathing in public baths. This shift reflected changing social customs and the influence of Christianity, as Christians were advised to go to the baths only for hygiene rather than socializing.
Decline of Communal Bathing in Late 4th Century
In the late 4th century, individual tubs began to replace communal bathing in public baths. Christians were advised to go to the baths only for hygiene, marking a shift in social customs and the influence of Christian values on daily life.
382 CE
Jerome Produces the Vulgate Bible Translation
In the late 4th century, Jerome produced the Latin translation of the Bible that became authoritative as the Vulgate. This translation became the standard biblical text for Western Christianity for over a millennium and profoundly influenced Christian theology and Latin literature.
391 CE
Theodosius Bans Pagan Rites
In 391 AD, the Christian emperor Theodosius introduced legislation that banned pagan rites and closed temples. Alexandria became the scene of great anti-pagan riots with public and private religious imagery destroyed. Egypt's native religious culture was continually in decline, and the ability to read hieroglyphic writing slowly disappeared as the role of Egyptian temple priests and priestesses diminished.
Theodosius Bans Pagan Rites
Christian emperor Theodosius introduced legislation that banned pagan rites and closed temples throughout Egypt. Alexandria became the scene of great anti-pagan riots with public and private religious imagery destroyed, marking the decline of Egypt's native religious culture.
395 CE
Theodosius I Makes Christianity the State Religion
Theodosius I, the last emperor to rule over both East and West, made Christianity the state religion before his death in 395, fundamentally transforming the religious character of the Roman Empire.
Permanent Division of the Roman Empire
Theodosius I, the last emperor to rule over both East and West, dies after making Christianity the state religion. His death in 395 results in the permanent division of the empire along an east-west axis, with dual power centers in Constantinople and Rome.
Administrative Division of the Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was administratively divided into Eastern and Western halves in 395 AD, a critical reorganization that would lead to divergent historical trajectories for each region.
400 CE
Formal Hieroglyphs Cease Ceremonial Use
Although formal hieroglyphs were used in a ceremonial role until the fourth century CE, towards the end only a small handful of priests could still read them. As traditional religious establishments were disbanded, knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was mostly lost.
End of Meroitic Script Usage
The Meroitic script, which had been in use since the 2nd century BC, ceased to be used in the early 5th century AD, marking the end of an important written tradition in the Kingdom of Kush that had been influenced by ancient Egyptian writing systems.
413 CE
Augustine Writes The City of God
Around the late 4th century, Augustine wrote 'The City of God against the Pagans,' considered 'a masterpiece of Western culture.' This work defended Christianity against accusations that it caused Rome's decline and profoundly influenced medieval Christian thought.
476 CE
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
The Western Roman Empire ended when Romulus Augustulus was forced to abdicate to the Germanic warlord Odoacer, who declared Zeno sole emperor and placed himself as Zeno's nominal subordinate. In reality, Italy was ruled by Odoacer alone.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
The Western Roman Empire ends when Romulus Augustulus is forced to abdicate to the Germanic warlord Odoacer. Odoacer declares Zeno sole emperor and places himself as Zeno's nominal subordinate, though in reality Italy is ruled by Odoacer alone. This marks the traditional end date of the Western Roman Empire.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
By 476 AD, the Western Roman Empire had collapsed, marking the traditional end date of the Western Empire. The Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) continued until 1453. This event represented the culmination of centuries of pressure from barbarian invasions, internal instability, and the factors contributing to imperial collapse, including the resistance of the wealthy to paying taxes.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
The Western Roman Empire collapsed in 476 AD, marking the end of ancient Rome's political authority in the West and the transition to the Middle Ages. This event is considered one of the most significant turning points in European history.
500 CE
Decline of Chariot Racing
Chariot racing, which had continued into the Byzantine period under imperial sponsorship, eventually declined due to the decline of cities in the 6th and 7th centuries. This marked the end of one of Rome's most enduring and popular spectacles.
532 CE
Nika Riots in Constantinople
The Nika riots of 532 CE represented the most notorious example of spectacles becoming sites of social and political protest, requiring the emperor to deploy force to put down crowd unrest. The riots demonstrated the volatile nature of public entertainment venues as political spaces.
Nika Riots in Constantinople
A major riot erupted in Constantinople during the reign of Justinian I, representing one of the most violent instances of crowd unrest at spectacles in Roman history. The riots began at the Hippodrome and nearly toppled the emperor, requiring military force to suppress. The event demonstrated how spectacles could quickly become sites of social and political protest.
560 CE
Last Reference to Gaulish Language
The last known reference to the Gaulish language occurred between 560 and 575 AD, marking the extinction of this Celtic language as it was absorbed into emergent Gallo-Romance languages shaped by Latin.
600 CE
Decline of Chariot Racing
The decline of cities in the 6th and 7th centuries led to the eventual demise of chariot racing, which had continued into the Byzantine period under imperial sponsorship. This marked the end of one of Rome's most enduring and popular forms of public entertainment.
Decline of Chariot Racing in 6th-7th Centuries
Chariot racing, which had continued into the Byzantine period under imperial sponsorship, came to an end as the decline of cities in the 6th and 7th centuries led to its eventual demise. This marked the end of one of Rome's most enduring entertainment traditions.
642 CE
End of Roman Period in Egypt
The Roman period in Egypt concluded in 642 AD, marking the end of over six centuries of Roman and Byzantine rule. This transition set the stage for the Islamic conquest of Egypt.
1453 CE
Fall of Constantinople
The Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) ended with the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Constantine XI Palaiologos, the last Roman emperor, died in battle against Mehmed II and his Ottoman forces during the siege. Mehmed II adopted the title of caesar in an attempt to claim connection to the former Empire.
Fall of Constantinople and End of Byzantine Empire
Constantine XI Palaiologos, the last Roman emperor, dies in battle against Mehmed II and his Ottoman forces during the siege of Constantinople. This marks the final end of the Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire). Mehmed II adopts the title of caesar in an attempt to claim connection to the former Empire.
Fall of the Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire) fell in 1453 AD with the conquest of Constantinople, marking the final end of the Roman Empire's last remnant after nearly 1,500 years of continuous Roman imperial tradition.
1809 CE
Publication of Description de l'Égypte
Napoleon's scientific expedition to Egypt resulted in the publication of Description de l'Égypte in 38 volumes between 1809 and 1829. This comprehensive work documented Egypt's natural history through the work of approximately 150 scientists and artists, marking the beginning of modern Egyptology and systematic study of ancient Egyptian civilization.
1822 CE
Hieroglyphs Substantially Deciphered
In the 1820s, after the discovery of the Rosetta Stone and years of research by Thomas Young and Jean-François Champollion, hieroglyphs were substantially deciphered. This breakthrough allowed modern scholars to read ancient Egyptian texts for the first time in over a millennium.
2011 CE
Discovery of Ancient Harbor at Mersa Gawasis
Archaeologists from Italy, the United States, and Egypt excavating at Mersa Gawasis unearthed traces of an ancient harbor that launched early voyages, including Hatshepsut's Punt expedition. Evidence included large ship timbers and hundreds of feet of papyrus ropes coiled in huge bundles.
2013 CE
Discovery of World's Oldest Port at Wadi el-Jarf
A team of Franco-Egyptian archaeologists discovered what is believed to be the world's oldest port, dating back about 4500 years from the time of King Khufu, on the Red Sea coast near Wadi el-Jarf (about 110 miles south of Suez).
2025 CE
UNESCO General History of Africa Volumes IX-XI Committee Findings
In 2025, the UNESCO International Scientific Committee for drafting the General History of Africa Volumes IX-XI reached the view that Egypt had African and Eurasian populations, with Upper Egypt repositioned as the origin of pharaonic unification. The committee identified close archaeological, genetic, linguistic and biological anthropological affinities between Upper Egyptian populations and Sub-Saharan groups.
Nature Journal Publishes Advanced Egyptian Genome Study
In 2025, the scientific journal Nature published the most advanced full genome analysis of an ancient Egyptian to date, studying the Old Kingdom individual NUE001. This groundbreaking study provided direct evidence of genetic ancestry related to the eastern Fertile Crescent in ancient Egypt and suggested patterns of wide cultural and demographic expansion from Mesopotamia affecting both Anatolia and Egypt.