Comparing Timelines
Exploring the overlapping histories of "Roman Empire" and "Renaissance".
Roman Empire
-100 - 1453
Renaissance
1250 - 1650
100 BCE
Roman Expansion Beyond Italy
By 100 BC, Rome had expanded its rule from the Italian peninsula to most of the Mediterranean and beyond. This marked the transformation of Rome from a regional power to a Mediterranean empire, setting the stage for future imperial developments.
44 BCE
Assassination of Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar was assassinated by a faction that opposed his concentration of power after briefly serving as perpetual dictator. This event triggered a series of civil wars that would ultimately lead to the end of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Empire.
42 BCE
Battle of Philippi
Mark Antony and Caesar's adopted son Octavian defeated the faction that had assassinated Julius Caesar at the Battle of Philippi. This victory eliminated Caesar's assassins and set up the eventual conflict between Antony and Octavian for control of Rome.
31 BCE
Battle of Actium
Octavian's forces defeated those of Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium, ending the last civil war of the Roman Republic. This decisive naval battle made Octavian the sole ruler of Rome and paved the way for the establishment of the Roman Empire.
27 BCE
Augustus Becomes First Roman Emperor
The Roman Senate granted Octavian the title Augustus and made him princeps with proconsular imperium, marking his accession as the first Roman emperor. This event officially began the Principate and transformed Rome from a republic to an empire.
9 CE
Battle of the Teutoburg Forest
Germanic tribes wiped out three Roman legions in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, dealing a devastating blow to Roman expansion in Germania. This defeat led to the increase of legions from 25 to around 30 and marked the effective end of Roman attempts to conquer Germany.
69 CE
End of Julio-Claudian Dynasty
The Julio-Claudian dynasty ended after four emperors following Augustus—Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero—yielding to the strife-torn Year of the Four Emperors. This period of instability demonstrated the fragility of imperial succession and led to the rise of the Flavian dynasty.
70 CE
Siege of Jerusalem and Destruction of Second Temple
The siege of Jerusalem in 70 AD led to the sacking of the Second Temple and the dispersal of Jewish political power. This event marked a crucial turning point in Jewish history and the beginning of the Jewish diaspora.
129 CE
Hadrian Refounds Jerusalem as Aelia Capitolina
Emperor Hadrian visited Judaea and refounded Jerusalem as the Roman colony Aelia Capitolina, overlaying the destroyed Jewish city with a new Roman urban plan. This included construction of a Temple to Jupiter on the site of the former Jewish Temple, which helped spark the Bar Kokhba Revolt.
132 CE
Bar Kokhba Revolt
The Bar Kokhba Revolt (132–135 CE) was sparked by Hadrian's measures and restrictions on Jewish practices. After crushing the uprising, Roman forces expelled most Jews from Jerusalem and rebuilt the city as a statement of imperial power and domination.
180 CE
Accession of Commodus
The accession of Commodus in 180 marked what contemporary historian Cassius Dio called the descent 'from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron.' This event is considered by some historians as the beginning of the Empire's decline, ending the period of the 'Five Good Emperors.'
212 CE
Constitutio Antoniniana - Universal Citizenship
During the reign of Caracalla, Roman citizenship was granted to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire through the Constitutio Antoniniana. This legal egalitarianism required a far-reaching revision of existing laws and fundamentally changed the nature of Roman identity.
235 CE
Crisis of the Third Century Begins
The Empire was engulfed by the Crisis of the Third Century, a 49-year period of invasions, civil strife, economic disorder, and plague that threatened its existence. The Gallic and Palmyrene empires broke away from the state during this tumultuous period.
270 CE
Aurelian Reunifies the Empire
Emperor Aurelian stabilized the empire militarily and reunified it after the Crisis of the Third Century. His successful campaigns restored imperial unity and ended the breakaway Gallic and Palmyrene empires.
285 CE
Diocletian's Reforms and Tetrarchy
Diocletian reorganized and restored much of the empire in 285, dividing it into four regions each ruled by a separate tetrarch. His reign brought the empire's most concerted effort against Christianity, known as the 'Great Persecution.'
303 CE
Great Persecution of Christians
Diocletian undertook the most severe persecution of Christians from 303 to 311, representing the empire's most concerted effort against the perceived threat of Christianity. This was the last and most systematic attempt to eliminate Christianity from the Roman Empire.
312 CE
Constantine Becomes First Christian Emperor
Constantine the Great became the first emperor to convert to Christianity, fundamentally changing the relationship between the Roman state and Christianity. His conversion marked the beginning of Christianity's transformation from a persecuted religion to the dominant faith of the empire.
330 CE
Foundation of Constantinople
Constantine the Great moved the imperial seat from Rome to Byzantium in 330 and renamed it Constantinople. This established a new capital in the East that would become the center of the Byzantine Empire and survive for over a thousand years.
395 CE
Death of Theodosius I - Final Division
Theodosius I, the last emperor to rule over both East and West, died in 395 after making Christianity the state religion. His death marked the permanent division of the empire into Eastern and Western halves, each with its own emperor.
476 CE
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Romulus Augustulus was forced to abdicate to the Germanic warlord Odoacer, marking the end of the Western Roman Empire. Odoacer declared Zeno sole emperor and placed himself as Zeno's nominal subordinate, effectively ending Western imperial rule.
1250 CE
Beginning of Italian Proto-Renaissance
The Italian Proto-Renaissance begins around 1250-1300, marking the earliest phase of the Renaissance movement. This period saw the emergence of new artistic and intellectual approaches that would later flourish into the full Renaissance. It represents the transition from medieval to early modern European culture.
1265 CE
Dante Alighieri's Literary Contributions
Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) produces his major works, including the Divine Comedy, which exemplify the early Renaissance spirit. His writings represent some of the first traces of Renaissance ideas in Italy, combining classical influences with vernacular language. Dante's work is considered foundational to Renaissance literature and thought.
1267 CE
Giotto's Revolutionary Paintings
Giotto di Bondone (1267-1337) creates groundbreaking paintings that mark a departure from medieval artistic conventions. He is credited with first treating a painting as a window into space, developing early techniques of realistic representation. His work represents a crucial step toward Renaissance artistic realism.
1304 CE
Petrarch's Humanist Influence
Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374) develops humanist ideas and literary works that become foundational to Renaissance thought. He is credited by contemporaries with the 14th-century resurgence of learning based on classical sources. Petrarch's work in recovering ancient texts and promoting classical learning helps establish Renaissance humanism.
1330 CE
Petrarch Defines Historical Periods
In the 1330s, Petrarch refers to pre-Christian times as 'antiqua' (ancient) and to the Christian period as 'nova' (new), establishing an early framework for historical periodization. This conceptual division would later influence how Renaissance thinkers viewed their relationship to classical antiquity and the medieval period.
1338 CE
Ambrogio Lorenzetti's Political Frescoes
Ambrogio Lorenzetti paints 'The Allegory of Good and Bad Government' (1338-1340), an early Renaissance fresco cycle with strong messages about virtues of fairness, justice, republicanism and good administration. This work represents the emergence of political philosophy in Renaissance art and the anti-monarchical thinking of Italian city-republics.
1348 CE
Black Death Devastates Europe
The Black Death pandemic hits Europe between 1348 and 1350, causing massive social and economic upheaval. In Florence, the population is nearly halved in 1348. The plague's devastation leads to significant social changes, including increased value of the working class and greater social mobility, which some theorize contributed to Renaissance developments.
1396 CE
Manuel Chrysoloras Teaches Greek in Florence
Byzantine diplomat and scholar Manuel Chrysoloras (c. 1355-1415) is invited by Coluccio Salutati to teach Greek in Florence in 1396. This marks the beginning of the systematic reintegration of Greek literary, historical, and theological texts into Western European curriculum, a crucial development in Renaissance humanism.
1401 CE
Competition for Florence Cathedral Doors
Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi compete for the contract to build the bronze doors for the Baptistery of Florence Cathedral in 1401, with Ghiberti winning. This competition is sometimes cited as a precise starting point for the Renaissance, representing the rivalry and creativity that sparked Renaissance artistic innovation.
1421 CE
Brunelleschi's Old Sacristy
Filippo Brunelleschi completes the Old Sacristy (1421-1440), one of the first buildings to use pilasters as an integrated system in Renaissance architecture. This work demonstrates the Renaissance architectural style that emulated and improved on classical forms, marking a significant development in architectural design.
1430 CE
Palmieri's Plague Dialogues
During the plague of 1430, Matteo Palmieri composes dialogues set in a country house in the Mugello countryside outside Florence. These works explore humanist ideals about civic life, child development, moral conduct, and the qualities of the ideal citizen, representing the development of Renaissance civic humanism.
1440 CE
Invention of the Printing Press
The printing press is invented around 1440, revolutionizing the dissemination of ideas and knowledge. This technological innovation democratizes learning and allows faster propagation of Renaissance ideas across Europe. The printing press becomes crucial to the spread of humanist texts and scientific knowledge.
1442 CE
Leonardo Bruni's Historical Periodization
Leonardo Bruni completes his 'History of the Florentine People' in 1442, becoming the first to use tripartite periodization. He divides history into three periods based on Petrarch's framework but adds a third period, believing Italy was no longer in decline. This establishes a new way of understanding historical periods.
1450 CE
Nicholas of Cusa's Infinite Universe
Writing around 1450, Nicholas of Cusa claims that the universe must be infinite in extent and therefore devoid of a center. This represents an early challenge to traditional Aristotelian and Ptolemaic views of the universe, contributing to the scientific developments that would characterize the Renaissance.
1453 CE
Fall of Constantinople
The Eastern Roman Empire, called the Byzantine Empire by later historians, continued until Constantine XI Palaiologos died in battle in 1453 against Mehmed II and his Ottoman forces during the siege of Constantinople. This marked the final end of the Roman Empire after over 1,400 years.
Fall of Constantinople
Constantinople falls to the Ottoman Empire in 1453, generating a wave of émigré Greek scholars bringing precious manuscripts in ancient Greek to Western Europe. Many of these texts had fallen into obscurity in the West, and their arrival significantly enriches Renaissance scholarship and contributes to the Greek phase of Renaissance humanism.
1465 CE
Palmieri's Poetic Work
Matteo Palmieri completes his poetic work 'La città di vita' in 1465, which provides perhaps the most succinct expression of his perspective on humanism. This work, along with his earlier 'Della vita civile', helps define Renaissance civic humanism and the ideal of the educated citizen.
1469 CE
First Use of 'Middle Ages' Term
The term 'Middle Ages' first appears in Latin in 1469 as 'media tempestas' (middle times). This represents the Renaissance intellectual framework of viewing history in periods, with humanist historians arguing that contemporary scholarship restored direct links to the classical period, bypassing the medieval period.
1472 CE
András Hess Establishes Printing in Buda
András Hess sets up a printing press in Buda in 1472, bringing printing technology to Hungary. This development helps spread Renaissance ideas and humanist texts in Central Europe, contributing to the Hungarian Renaissance and the broader dissemination of Renaissance culture beyond Italy.
1476 CE
King Matthias Marries Beatrice of Naples
King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary marries Beatrice of Naples in 1476, making Buda one of the most important artistic centers of the Renaissance north of the Alps. This marriage brings Italian Renaissance culture directly to Hungary and establishes strong cultural connections between Hungary and Italy.
1479 CE
Matthias Begins Major Building Projects
King Matthias Corvinus starts major building projects in Buda and Visegrád around 1479, rebuilding the palace at Visegrád in Renaissance style and adding new wings to the royal castle of Buda. He appoints Italian Chimenti Camicia and Dalmatian Giovanni Dalmata to direct these projects, bringing Renaissance architecture to Hungary.
1485 CE
Leonardo da Vinci Visits Hungary
In spring 1485, Leonardo da Vinci travels to Hungary on behalf of Sforza to meet King Matthias Corvinus and is commissioned by him to paint a Madonna. This visit represents the international reach of Renaissance artistic patronage and the cultural connections between Italian artists and European courts.
1486 CE
Pico della Mirandola's Oration
Giovanni Pico della Mirandola writes 'De hominis dignitate' (Oration on the Dignity of Man) in 1486, a series of theses on philosophy, natural thought, faith, and magic. This work, often called the 'Manifesto of the Renaissance,' provides a vibrant defense of thinking and represents a crucial contribution to Renaissance humanism.
1489 CE
Bartolomeo della Fonte Praises Corvinus Library
In 1489, Bartolomeo della Fonte of Florence writes that Lorenzo de' Medici founded his own Greek-Latin library encouraged by the example of Hungarian King Matthias Corvinus. The Bibliotheca Corviniana was Europe's greatest collection of secular books and second only to the Vatican Library in size.
1492 CE
Columbus Discovers the Americas
Christopher Columbus sails across the Atlantic Ocean from Spain in 1492, seeking a direct route to India but accidentally discovering the Americas. This discovery has a profound impact on European intellectual life, challenging classical worldviews and contributing to the Scientific Revolution by disproving central claims about the world.
1495 CE
Italian Renaissance Arrives in France
The Italian Renaissance arrives in France in 1495, imported by King Charles VIII after his invasion of Italy. This marks the beginning of the French Renaissance, as Italian art, artists, and cultural ideas begin to influence French court culture and artistic production.
Luca Pacioli Publishes First Accounting Work
At the end of the 15th century, Luca Pacioli publishes the first work on bookkeeping, making him the founder of accounting. This represents the application of Renaissance innovation to commerce and the development of modern business practices that would support the growing merchant economy.
1505 CE
John I Albert's Renaissance Tomb
The tomb of John I Albert, completed in 1505 by Francesco Fiorentino, becomes the first example of a Renaissance composition in Poland. This marks the beginning of Renaissance artistic influence in Poland and the introduction of Italian Renaissance styles to Central European art and architecture.
1517 CE
Luther's Ninety-Five Theses
In October 1517, Martin Luther publishes the Ninety-Five Theses, challenging papal authority and criticizing perceived corruption, particularly regarding sold indulgences. This leads to the Reformation, a break with the Roman Catholic Church, demonstrating how Renaissance humanism and textual criticism contributed to religious reform movements.
1518 CE
Bona Sforza Marries Sigismund I
Bona Sforza of Milan marries King Sigismund I of Poland in 1518, bringing many Italian artists to Poland. This marriage significantly strengthens the Polish Renaissance by introducing Italian artistic and cultural influences directly to the Polish court and establishing stronger cultural ties between Poland and Italy.
1519 CE
Magellan-Elcano Circumnavigation
Between 1519 and 1522, the Magellan-Elcano expedition achieves the first circumnavigation of Earth in history, including the first crossing of the Pacific by a European expedition. This voyage reveals the vast scale of the Pacific Ocean and dramatically expands European geographical knowledge during the Renaissance period of exploration.
Château de Chambord Construction Begins
Construction begins on Château de Chambord (1519-1547), one of the most famous examples of Renaissance architecture in France. This project represents the French adoption and adaptation of Italian Renaissance architectural styles, demonstrating how Renaissance culture spread and evolved across different European regions.
1527 CE
Sack of Rome Ends Italian Renaissance
Holy Roman Emperor Charles V launches an assault on Rome in 1527 during the War of the League of Cognac, effectively concluding the Italian Renaissance. Despite this political catastrophe, the Renaissance's artistic impact endures in the work of Italian painters like Tintoretto, Sofonisba Anguissola, and Paolo Veronese.
1528 CE
Palmieri's Civic Life Published
Matteo Palmieri's work 'Della vita civile' (On Civic Life) is printed in 1528, advocating civic humanism and refining the Tuscan vernacular to the same level as Latin. This publication represents the maturation of Renaissance civic philosophy and the elevation of vernacular languages in scholarly discourse.
1533 CE
Catherine de' Medici Marries Henry II
Fourteen-year-old Catherine de' Medici (1519-1589), born in Florence, marries Henry II of France in 1533. Though later famous for her role in the French Wars of Religion, she makes a direct contribution in bringing arts, sciences, and music (including the origins of ballet) to the French court from her native Florence.
1534 CE
Pope Paul III's Reign Begins
Pope Paul III comes to the papal throne (1534-1549) after the sack of Rome in 1527, with uncertainties prevalent in the Catholic Church following the Reformation. His papacy represents the Church's response to Renaissance and Reformation challenges, including patronage of Renaissance art and the Counter-Reformation.
1543 CE
Copernicus Publishes Heliocentric Theory
Nicolaus Copernicus publishes 'De revolutionibus orbium coelestium' (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres), positing that the Earth moves around the Sun. This work, dedicated to Pope Paul III, represents a fundamental challenge to traditional cosmology and marks a crucial development in the Scientific Revolution.
Vesalius Publishes Anatomical Work
Andreas Vesalius publishes 'De humani corporis fabrica' (On the Workings of the Human Body), giving new confidence to the role of dissection, observation, and the mechanistic view of anatomy. This work represents the Renaissance emphasis on direct observation and empirical study in medicine and natural science.
1544 CE
Königsberg Academy Founded
The Academy at Königsberg is founded in 1544, representing the expansion of higher education institutions during the Renaissance. This is one of three new academies established in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, along with Vilnius (1579) and Zamość (1594), contributing to the educational reforms of the period.
1546 CE
Farnese Hours Completed
Giulio Clovio completes the Farnese Hours in 1546, arguably the last major illuminated manuscript and a masterpiece that marks the end of the Italian Renaissance of illuminated manuscripts. This work represents the culmination of Renaissance manuscript art before the dominance of printed books.
1550 CE
Vasari's Lives of the Artists
Giorgio Vasari publishes 'Lives of the Artists' in 1550 (revised 1568), first using the term 'rinascita' (rebirth) in its broad sense. Vasari divides the Renaissance into three phases and establishes the framework for understanding Renaissance art history, making this work foundational to Renaissance historiography.
1577 CE
Drake's Circumnavigation
Between 1577 and 1580, Drake's Raiding Expedition achieves the second circumnavigation of Earth, carried out in a single expedition. Drake becomes the first to complete a circumnavigation as captain while leading the expedition throughout the entire voyage, demonstrating English maritime capabilities during the Renaissance.
1579 CE
Vilnius Academy Founded
The Academy at Vilnius is founded in 1579, becoming one of the major institutions of higher education in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This academy, along with others founded during this period, contributes to the educational and cultural development of the Renaissance in Eastern Europe.
1594 CE
Zamość Academy Founded
The Academy at Zamość is founded in 1594, completing the trio of new academies established in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth during the Renaissance. These institutions represent the expansion of higher education and the spread of Renaissance learning in Central and Eastern Europe.
1606 CE
Willem Janszoon Lands in Australia
In 1606, Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon sails from the East Indies in the Dutch East India Company ship Duyfken and lands in Australia. He charts about 300 km of the west coast of Cape York Peninsula in Queensland, representing the first known European landing on the Australian continent during the age of Renaissance exploration.
1642 CE
Abel Tasman Circumnavigates Australia
Between 1642 and 1643, Abel Tasman circumnavigates the Australian continent, proving that it was not joined to the imagined south polar continent. This voyage contributes to the Renaissance expansion of geographical knowledge and the mapping of previously unknown territories.
1648 CE
Joan Blaeu's World Map
Dutch cartographer Joan Blaeu creates the large world map 'Nova Totius Terrarum Orbis Tabula' in 1648 to commemorate the Peace of Westphalia. This map represents the culmination of Renaissance geographical knowledge, showing that every continent except Antarctica had been visited and mostly mapped by Europeans during the Renaissance period.
1650 CE
Dutch Complete Australian Coastal Mapping
By 1650, Dutch cartographers have mapped most of the coastline of the Australian continent, which they named New Holland, except the east coast. This achievement represents the culmination of Renaissance exploration and mapping efforts, demonstrating the extent of European geographical knowledge by the end of the Renaissance period.