Space Race vs Cold War
1920 CE – 1924 CE
Soviet Gas Dynamics Laboratory Founded
The Soviet military sanctioned the Gas Dynamics Laboratory in 1921, a small research laboratory to explore solid-fuel rockets, led by Nikolai Tikhomirov. This marked the first Soviet development of artillery rockets and laid the groundwork for future Soviet rocketry programs.
1925 CE – 1929 CE
First Soviet Solid Fuel Rocket Test
The first test-firing of a solid fuel rocket was carried out in 1928 by the Soviet Gas Dynamics Laboratory. This represented an early milestone in Soviet rocketry development that would eventually lead to the space program.
1930 CE – 1934 CE
GIRD-X: First Soviet Liquid-Fueled Rocket
Soviet rocket pioneers Sergey Korolev, Friedrich Zander, Mikhail Tikhonravov, and Leonid Dushkin launched GIRD-X, the first Soviet liquid-fueled rocket, in 1933. This was a critical step in Soviet rocket development, and the same year the two design bureaus were combined into the Reactive Scientific Research Institute.
1945 CE – 1949 CE
Albert II: First Mammal in Space
Albert II, a rhesus monkey, was launched by the United States on a sub-orbital flight on June 14, 1949, becoming the first mammal in space. Unfortunately, he died on landing due to a parachute malfunction. This mission was part of early US efforts to understand the safety of the space environment before sending humans.
George Orwell Coins 'Cold War' Term
Writer George Orwell used the term 'cold war' in his essay 'You and the Atomic Bomb,' published on 19 October 1945. Contemplating a world living under the threat of nuclear warfare, Orwell envisioned a polarized world divided between superpowers. This was the first notable use of the term that would come to define the post-war era.
George Kennan's 'Long Telegram'
In February 1946, George F. Kennan sent his famous 'Long Telegram' from Moscow to Washington, articulating the US government's increasingly hard line against the Soviets. The telegram helped shape the Truman administration's Soviet policy and became the basis for the US strategy of containment. It galvanized a policy debate that would define American foreign policy for decades.
Churchill's 'Iron Curtain' Speech
On 5 March 1946, former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill delivered his famous 'Iron Curtain' speech in Fulton, Missouri, calling for an Anglo-American alliance against the Soviets. Churchill accused the USSR of establishing an 'iron curtain' dividing Europe from the Baltic to the Adriatic. The speech crystallized Western concerns about Soviet expansionism and became one of the defining moments of the early Cold War.
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Remains of the Iron Curtain in the Czech Republic, symbolizing the division Churchill warned about
Novikov Telegram
In September 1946, the Soviet side produced the Novikov telegram, sent by the Soviet ambassador to the US but commissioned and co-authored by Vyacheslav Molotov. It portrayed the US as being in the grip of monopoly capitalists building up military capability to prepare for world domination. The telegram was the Soviet counterpart to Kennan's Long Telegram and reflected the hardening of Soviet attitudes toward the West.
Byrnes Stuttgart Speech
On 6 September 1946, US Secretary of State James F. Byrnes delivered a speech in Germany repudiating the Morgenthau Plan and warning the Soviets that the US intended to maintain a military presence in Europe indefinitely. The speech signaled a shift in US policy toward rebuilding Germany as a bulwark against Soviet expansion. It was a key moment in the emerging Cold War confrontation over Germany's future.
Truman Doctrine Announced
In 1947, US President Harry S. Truman delivered a speech calling for $400 million to intervene in the Greek Civil War and unveiled the Truman Doctrine, framing the conflict as a contest between free peoples and totalitarian regimes. The doctrine committed the United States to containing Soviet influence globally and became the cornerstone of US Cold War foreign policy. It marked the beginning of a bipartisan defense consensus focused on containment and deterrence.
Bernard Baruch Popularizes 'Cold War' Term
On 16 April 1947, Bernard Baruch, an influential advisor to Democratic presidents, used the term 'cold war' in a speech to describe the specific post-war geopolitical confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States. The speech, written by journalist Herbert Bayard Swope, proclaimed 'we are today in the midst of a cold war.' This was the first use of the term to describe the specific US-Soviet rivalry.
Marshall Plan Enacted
In June 1947, in accordance with the Truman Doctrine, the United States enacted the Marshall Plan, a pledge of economic assistance for all European countries willing to participate. President Truman signed the plan on 3 April 1948, providing over $13 billion to Western European countries. The plan aimed to rebuild democratic and economic systems in Europe and counter the appeal of communism.
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The labeling used on Marshall Plan economic aid to Western Europe
Cominform Established
In September 1947, the Soviets created Cominform to impose orthodoxy within the international communist movement and tighten political control over Soviet satellites through coordination of communist parties in the Eastern Bloc. The organization was designed to coordinate communist parties across Europe and counter the Marshall Plan. It represented the Soviet Union's effort to consolidate its ideological and political control over Eastern Europe.
Czechoslovak Communist Coup
In early 1948, Czech Communists executed a coup d'état in Czechoslovakia, resulting in the formation of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. This was the only Eastern Bloc state that the Soviets had permitted to retain democratic structures. The public brutality of the coup shocked Western powers and swept away the last vestiges of opposition to the Marshall Plan in the US Congress.
Marshall Plan Signed by Truman
President Harry S. Truman signed the Marshall Plan on 3 April 1948, committing the US government to providing over $13 billion in economic assistance to Western European countries. The plan was a cornerstone of US Cold War strategy, aimed at rebuilding war-devastated economies and preventing the spread of communism. It later led to the creation of the OECD.
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Construction in West Berlin under Marshall Plan aid
Berlin Blockade Begins
In June 1948, Stalin instituted the Berlin Blockade, preventing Western supplies from reaching West Berlin. The United States, Britain, France, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and several other countries responded with the massive 'Berlin Airlift,' supplying West Berlin with provisions despite Soviet threats. The blockade was one of the first major crises of the Cold War and firmly linked West Berlin to the United States.
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American C-47s unloading at the Berlin Tempelhof Airport during the Berlin Blockade
NATO Founded
Britain, France, the United States, Canada, and eight other western European countries signed the North Atlantic Treaty in April 1949, establishing the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The alliance was essentially a defensive agreement designed to counter Soviet influence in Europe. NATO became the cornerstone of Western collective security throughout the Cold War.
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President Truman signs the North Atlantic Treaty with guests in the Oval Office
Soviet Union Tests First Nuclear Weapon
In August 1949, the Soviet Union detonated its first nuclear device in Semipalatinsk, Kazakh SSR, ending the American atomic monopoly. This was achieved four years after the US used nuclear weapons on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and much sooner than Western experts had expected. The Soviet atomic test dramatically escalated Cold War tensions and triggered a nuclear arms race between the superpowers.
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US and USSR/Russian nuclear weapons stockpiles, 1945–2006
People's Republic of China Founded
In 1949, Mao Zedong's People's Liberation Army defeated Chiang Kai-shek's US-backed Kuomintang Nationalist Government in China, establishing the People's Republic of China. The Kremlin promptly created an alliance with the newly formed PRC. This dramatically shifted the global balance of power and confronted the Truman administration with the challenge of communist expansion in Asia.
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Mao Zedong and Joseph Stalin in Moscow, December 1949
1950 CE – 1954 CE
R-1 Missile Enters Soviet Service
The R-1, a Soviet copy of the German A-4 (V-2) rocket, entered service in the Soviet Army on November 28, 1950. Chief designer Sergei Korolev oversaw the R-1's development, and the experience gained from assembling and launching A-4 rockets was directly applied to this project.
Tikhonravov Publishes 'Flight to the Moon'
Soviet rocketry engineer Mikhail Tikhonravov published 'Flight to the Moon' in the newspaper Pionerskaya pravda in October 1951, sparking public interest in space travel. He described a two-person interplanetary spaceship and forecast that Tsiolkovsky's dream would be realized within 10 to 15 years.
Collier's Magazine 'Man Will Conquer Space Soon!' Series
From March 1952 to April 1954, US Collier's magazine published a series of seven articles titled 'Man Will Conquer Space Soon!' detailing Wernher von Braun's plans for crewed spaceflight. This series helped build American public enthusiasm for space exploration.
Von Braun 1952 Space Station Concept
Wernher von Braun's space station concept from 1952, which was featured in the Collier's magazine series
NSC 68 Proposes Massive Defense Buildup
In 1950, the National Security Council produced NSC 68, a secret document proposing to reinforce pro-Western alliance systems and quadruple spending on defense. The document reflected the Truman administration's response to the communist revolution in China and the end of the American atomic monopoly. It fundamentally shaped US Cold War strategy by advocating for a massive expansion of military capabilities.
Korean War Begins
In June 1950, after years of mutual hostilities, Kim Il Sung's North Korean People's Army invaded South Korea, triggering the Korean War. The United Nations Security Council backed the defense of South Korea, and a UN force of sixteen countries faced North Korea. The war became one of the first major proxy conflicts of the Cold War and galvanized NATO to develop a military structure.
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General Douglas MacArthur observes the naval shelling of Incheon, Korea, 15 September 1950
Stalin Dies; Khrushchev Rises to Power
Joseph Stalin died in 1953, shifting the dynamic of the Cold War. Nikita Khrushchev eventually won the ensuing power struggle by the mid-1950s. In 1956, Khrushchev denounced Stalin and proceeded to ease controls over the party and society in a process known as de-Stalinization, marking a significant change in Soviet domestic and foreign policy.
CIA Coup in Iran (Operation Ajax)
In 1953, President Eisenhower implemented Operation Ajax, a covert CIA operation to overthrow Iranian Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh, who had nationalized the British-owned Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. The pro-Western Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi assumed control as an autocratic monarch. The operation was a significant example of US covert intervention in the Third World during the Cold War.
Korean Armistice Agreement
The Korean Armistice Agreement was approved in July 1953, ending active fighting in the Korean War in a stalemate roughly along the original border at the 38th Parallel. The war had demonstrated both the limits and the importance of the containment doctrine. Nearly 40,000 Americans died in the conflict, which ended without a formal peace treaty.
CIA-Backed Coup in Guatemala
In 1954, the CIA supported the Guatemalan coup d'état that ousted left-wing President Jacobo Árbenz. The post-Arbenz military government repealed progressive land reform laws, returned nationalized property to the United Fruit Company, and established anti-communist institutions at US request. The coup was a major example of US Cold War intervention in Latin America.
1955 CE – 1959 CE
Disney's 'Man in Space' Broadcast
In March 1955, Disneyland's animated episode 'Man in Space' was broadcast on US television with an audience of about 40 million people. The broadcast fired public enthusiasm for space travel and raised government interest in both the US and USSR.
The Challenges of Outer Space (1955)
Wernher von Braun presenting space exploration concepts in 1955
US Announces Intent to Launch Artificial Satellites
On July 29, 1955, James C. Hagerty, President Eisenhower's press secretary, announced that the United States intended to launch 'small Earth circling satellites' between July 1, 1957, and December 31, 1958, as part of the US contribution to the International Geophysical Year. This announcement effectively started the Space Race.
Soviet Union Announces Intent to Launch Satellite
On August 2, 1955, at the Sixth Congress of the International Astronautical Federation in Copenhagen, scientist Leonid I. Sedov told international reporters of the Soviet Union's intention to launch a satellite 'in the near future.' This was a direct response to the US announcement five days earlier.
Korolev Convinces Soviet Academy to Pursue Satellite
On August 30, 1955, Sergei Korolev succeeded in convincing the Soviet Academy of Sciences to establish a commission dedicated to achieving the goal of launching a satellite into Earth orbit before the United States. This can be viewed as the de facto start date of the Space Race.
R-7 Semyorka: World's First ICBM
On August 21, 1957, the R-7 flew its full range and became the world's first intercontinental ballistic missile. The R-7 was designed with a two-stage configuration and four boosters, and its development represented a major strategic milestone in the Cold War arms race.
R-7 Semyorka ICBM
The R-7 Semyorka, the world's first ICBM and the basis for Soviet space launch vehicles
Sputnik 1: First Artificial Satellite
On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the world's first artificial satellite, using a modified R-7 rocket. The small, beeping ball less than two feet in diameter shocked the Western world and triggered the 'Sputnik crisis,' demonstrating Soviet technological capability and raising fears about Soviet ICBM capability.
Sputnik 1
Sputnik 1, the world's first artificial satellite launched by the Soviet Union
Universal Newsreel Reports on Sputnik
On October 7, 1957, Universal Newsreel broadcast one of the first reports on Sputnik 1 to American audiences. The launch had caused widespread concern in the United States about Soviet technological superiority and national security.
Universal Newsreel on Sputnik 1
One of the first reports of Sputnik 1 by Universal Newsreel on October 7, 1957
Sputnik 2 Carries Laika into Orbit
On November 3, 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 2, carrying the dog Laika into orbit — the first animal to orbit Earth. The satellite weighed more than 500 kg, proving Soviet rocket superiority. Laika died during the mission; the true cause of death (stress and overheating) was not revealed until 2002.
Laika on a Romanian post stamp
Commemorative stamp featuring Laika, the first animal to orbit Earth
Project Vanguard Launch Failure
On December 6, 1957, the US Project Vanguard rocket exploded a few seconds after launch at Cape Canaveral, becoming an international embarrassment. The satellite appeared in newspapers under mocking names like 'Flopnik' and 'Kaputnik,' and the Soviet delegate at the UN offered the US aid 'under the Soviet program of technical assistance to backwards nations.'
Explorer 1: First US Satellite
On January 31, 1958, the United States successfully launched Explorer 1, its first satellite, on a Juno I rocket derived from the Army's Redstone missile. The satellite discovered the Van Allen radiation belt, a doughnut-shaped zone of high-level radiation intensity around the Earth, named after scientist James Van Allen who designed the satellite's instrumentation.
Explorer 1 team
William Hayward Pickering, James Van Allen, and von Braun display a model of Explorer 1 at a news conference
Eisenhower Recommends Creation of NASA
On April 2, 1958, President Eisenhower recommended to Congress that a civilian agency be established to direct nonmilitary space activities, in response to the Soviet space lead. Congress passed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, which Eisenhower signed into law on July 29, 1958, creating NASA from the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics.
NASA Officially Established
On July 29, 1958, President Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act into law, officially creating NASA. The law transformed the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics into the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and also created a Civilian-Military Liaison Committee to coordinate civilian and military space programs.
Luna 1: First Spacecraft to Reach Lunar Vicinity
On January 2, 1959, the Soviet Union successfully launched Luna 1, which became the first spacecraft to reach the vicinity of the Moon, though it missed the Moon itself. This was the fourth attempt in the Luna program, following three failed secret 1958 attempts.
Luna 2 Impacts the Moon
On September 14, 1959, Luna 2 successfully impacted the Moon, becoming the first man-made object to reach the lunar surface. This was a significant Soviet achievement in the Space Race, demonstrating their ability to precisely target the Moon.
Luna 3 Photographs Far Side of the Moon
On October 7, 1959, Luna 3 successfully flew by the Moon and sent back the first pictures of its far side, which had never been seen by humans before. This was a major scientific and propaganda achievement for the Soviet Union.
First photo of the far side of the Moon
The first photo of the far side of the Moon, taken by Luna 3 in 1959
Warsaw Pact Established
In 1955, the Soviet Union established the Warsaw Pact, a formal military alliance among Eastern Bloc nations, as a counterpart to NATO. Although nominally a defensive alliance, the Warsaw Pact's primary function was to safeguard Soviet hegemony over its Eastern European satellites. Its only direct military actions were invasions of its own member states to prevent them from breaking away.
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Map of Cold War military alliances in Europe showing NATO and Warsaw Pact
West German Bundeswehr Established
In 1955, Washington secured full German membership of NATO and the Bundeswehr, the West German military, was established. The rearmament of West Germany had been a contentious issue, with France as the main opponent, but the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950 had changed calculations. West Germany's integration into NATO was a major step in the Western alliance's military posture against the Soviet Union.
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Generals Adolf Heusinger and Hans Speidel sworn into the newly founded Bundeswehr by Theodor Blank in November 1955
Hungarian Revolution Crushed by Soviet Forces
The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 occurred after Khrushchev arranged the removal of Hungary's Stalinist leader. In response to a popular anti-communist uprising, the new regime declared its intention to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact and pledged free elections. The Soviet Army invaded, killing thousands of Hungarians and causing approximately 200,000 to flee the country.
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Hungarian flag with the communist coat of arms cut out, an anti-Soviet revolutionary symbol
Khrushchev's 'We Will Bury You' Speech
On 18 November 1956, while addressing Western dignitaries at a reception in Moscow's Polish embassy, Khrushchev declared 'Whether you like it or not, history is on our side. We will bury you,' shocking everyone present. He later claimed he had not been referring to nuclear war but to the historically fated victory of communism over capitalism. The statement became one of the most famous and alarming declarations of the Cold War.
Soviet Union Launches Sputnik 1
In October 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the first Earth satellite, following their successful launch of the world's first intercontinental ballistic missile in August. The CIA described the orbit of Sputnik 1 as a 'stupendous scientific achievement' and concluded the USSR had likely perfected an ICBM capable of reaching any desired target. The launch inaugurated the Space Race and triggered the Sputnik crisis in the United States.
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Clockwise from top left: Sputnik 1, Apollo 11 Moon landing, Space station Mir
Berlin Crisis of 1958–1959
During November 1958, Khrushchev made an unsuccessful attempt to turn all of Berlin into an independent, demilitarized 'free city,' giving the Western powers a six-month ultimatum to withdraw their troops from West Berlin. NATO formally rejected the ultimatum in mid-December, and Khrushchev withdrew it in return for a Geneva conference on the German question. The crisis highlighted the ongoing tensions over the divided city of Berlin.
Cuban Revolution
On 1 January 1959, the 26th of July Movement, led by Fidel Castro and Che Guevara, seized power in Cuba in the Cuban Revolution. Although Castro initially refused to categorize his government as socialist, he appointed Marxists to senior government and military positions. The revolution installed the first communist regime in the Western Hemisphere, dramatically escalating Cold War tensions in the Americas.
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Che Guevara (left) and Fidel Castro (right) in 1961
1960 CE – 1964 CE
Vostok 1: Yuri Gagarin Becomes First Human in Space
On April 12, 1961, the USSR launched Yuri Gagarin into a single 108-minute orbit around the Earth in Vostok 1, making him the first human in space. Gagarin became a worldwide celebrity and national hero, and April 12 was declared Cosmonautics Day in the USSR. The flight shocked the US and intensified the Space Race.
Gagarin and Vostok 1 stamp
A 1964 Soviet stamp featuring Yuri Gagarin and an intentionally inaccurate Vostok spacecraft
Alan Shepard: First American in Space
On May 5, 1961, Alan Shepard became the first American in space, launching in a ballistic trajectory on Mercury-Redstone 3 in a spacecraft he named Freedom 7. Though he did not achieve orbit like Gagarin, he was the first person to exercise manual control over his spacecraft's attitude and retro-rocket firing.
Alan Shepard during Mercury-Redstone 3
Alan Shepard, the first American in space, during the Mercury-Redstone 3 mission in 1961
Kennedy Commits US to Moon Landing
On May 25, 1961, President Kennedy asked Congress to commit to the goal of 'landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth' before the end of the decade. This speech, titled 'Special Message on Urgent National Needs,' was a direct response to Gagarin's flight and the Bay of Pigs embarrassment, dramatically escalating the Space Race.
Gus Grissom's Suborbital Flight
On July 21, 1961, Virgil 'Gus' Grissom repeated Shepard's suborbital flight in Liberty Bell 7, becoming the second American in space. The mission was largely successful, though the spacecraft sank after splashdown when the hatch blew prematurely.
Mercury capsule cutaway
Cutaway diagram of the Mercury capsule used in early US human spaceflight missions
Starfish Prime Nuclear Test in Space
The United States conducted the Starfish Prime nuclear test, detonating a nuclear bomb in outer space. This test led to the signing of the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963 by more than 100 signatories, including both the United States and the Soviet Union.
Starfish Prime debris fireball
The debris fireball of Starfish Prime nuclear test in space seen from Honolulu
John Glenn Orbits Earth
On February 20, 1962, astronaut John Glenn became the first American to orbit the Earth, completing three orbits in the Friendship 7 spacecraft. His Mercury-Atlas 6 mission splashed down safely in the Atlantic Ocean after a tense reentry due to what falsely appeared to be a loose heat shield. Glenn became a national hero and received a ticker-tape parade in New York City.
Vostok 3 and 4 Dual Launch
On August 11 and 12, 1962, the USSR launched two piloted spacecraft, Vostok 3 and Vostok 4, in essentially identical orbits, demonstrating 24-hour launch pad turnaround. The two spacecraft came within approximately 5 km of one another, close enough for radio communication, and Vostok 4 set a record of nearly four days in space.
Kennedy's 'We Choose to Go to the Moon' Speech
On September 12, 1962, President Kennedy rallied popular support for the Apollo program in his 'We choose to go to the Moon' speech before a large crowd at Rice University Stadium in Houston, Texas. The speech articulated the national commitment to lunar exploration and remains one of the most famous speeches in American history.
Mariner 2: First Successful Interplanetary Spacecraft
In December 1962, Mariner 2 became the first man-made object to fly by another planet when it passed by Venus. Mariner 1 had failed shortly after launch, but Mariner 2 successfully conducted the first interplanetary flyby, marking a major milestone in space exploration.
Mariner 2
Artist's impression of Mariner 2, the first successful interplanetary spacecraft
Valentina Tereshkova: First Woman in Space
On June 16, 1963, Valentina Tereshkova was launched into space on Vostok 6, becoming the first woman in space. She was chosen from a small group of female parachutist factory workers, and her flight was possibly a medical experiment. She remains the only woman to have flown a solo space mission.
Kennedy Proposes Joint US-USSR Moon Mission
On September 20, 1963, President Kennedy proposed before the United Nations General Assembly that the United States and Soviet Union join forces in an effort to reach the Moon. This represented a significant shift in Kennedy's thinking about the Space Race, preferring cooperation over competition to ease Cold War tensions.
Kennedy Assassinated
On November 22, 1963, President Kennedy was assassinated, ending his presidency and his proposals for a joint US-Soviet Moon mission. Khrushchev's son later claimed that Khrushchev had been poised to accept Kennedy's joint Moon mission proposal at the time of the assassination.
Mariner 4: First Successful Mars Flyby
In 1964, NASA's Mariner 4 became the first spacecraft to successfully fly by Mars, transmitting 21 pictures of the planet's surface. This was a major achievement in planetary exploration, providing the first close-up images of another planet.
Soviet Lunar Program Officially Established
On August 3, 1964, the Soviet lunar program was officially established with the adoption of Soviet Communist Party Central Committee Command 655-268. The decree directed Vladimir Chelomei to develop a Moon flyby program and Korolev to develop the Moon landing program, with circumlunar flights planned for 1967 and landings starting in 1968.
Soviet LK and American Apollo Lunar Module
Comparison of Soviet LK and American Apollo Lunar Module lunar landers
Voskhod 1: First Multi-Person Spaceflight
On October 12, 1964, Voskhod 1 became the first spaceflight with a three-person crew, beating the US Gemini program. The USSR touted this as a technological achievement, though the cosmonauts flew without spacesuits due to the craft's limited cabin space, exposing them to significant risk.
Vostok and Voskhod crew seating
Diagram showing how Korolev modified the one-person Vostok capsule to carry three people for Voskhod
Khrushchev Deposed
On October 16, 1964, Leonid Brezhnev and a small cadre of high-ranking Communist Party officials deposed Khrushchev as Soviet government leader, one day after Voskhod 1 landed. The new political leaders ended the technologically troublesome Voskhod program and started concentrating on reaching the Moon.
U-2 Spy Plane Incident
Plans for a two-power summit in May 1960 were disturbed by the U-2 spy plane scandal, in which Eisenhower was caught lying about the intrusion of American surveillance aircraft into Soviet territory. The incident derailed the planned summit and damaged US-Soviet relations at a time when there had been substantial hopes for détente. It demonstrated the extent of aerial espionage conducted by both superpowers.
Congo Crisis and Lumumba Assassination
In June 1960, the Republic of the Congo gained independence from Belgium, and the Congo Crisis erupted on 5 July, leading to the secession of Katanga and South Kasai. CIA-backed President Kasa-Vubu dismissed democratically elected Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba, and CIA-backed Colonel Mobutu Sese Seko seized power. Lumumba was handed over to Katangan authorities who executed him by firing squad.
File:The Soviet Union 1961 CPA 2576 stamp
1961 USSR stamp commemorating Patrice Lumumba, assassinated prime minister of the Republic of the Congo
Non-Aligned Movement Founded
In 1961, the Non-Aligned Movement was founded and headquartered in Belgrade, culminating from the consensus reached at the 1955 Bandung Conference in Indonesia. Dozens of Third World governments resolved to stay out of the Cold War and assert their independence from both superpowers. The movement represented the growing influence of decolonized nations in international affairs.
Sino-Soviet Split Becomes Official
By 1961, relations between the USSR and China had broken down, with the Sino-Soviet split bringing the two states to the brink of war. Mao had defended Stalin when Khrushchev criticized him in 1956 and treated the new Soviet leader as a superficial upstart. The split was one of the key events of the Cold War, fundamentally altering the global communist movement and creating opportunities for US diplomacy.
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Map showing greatest territorial extent of Soviet influence before the official Sino-Soviet split of 1961
Bay of Pigs Invasion
In April 1961, the administration of newly elected President John F. Kennedy mounted the unsuccessful CIA-organized ship-borne invasion of Cuba by Cuban exiles at Playa Girón and Playa Larga. The failure publicly humiliated the United States and led Castro to publicly embrace Marxism-Leninism. The Soviet Union pledged to provide further support to Cuba following the failed invasion.
Berlin Wall Constructed
On 13 August 1961, East Germany erected a barbed-wire barrier that would eventually be expanded into the Berlin Wall, effectively closing the loophole through which hundreds of thousands of East Germans had been emigrating to West Germany. By 1961, nearly 20% of East Germany's population had migrated to West Germany through the gap between East and West Berlin. The Wall became the most potent symbol of the Iron Curtain and the division of Europe.
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Soviet and American tanks face each other at Checkpoint Charlie during the Berlin Crisis of 1961
Cuban Missile Crisis
In October 1962, the Cuban Missile Crisis brought the world closer to nuclear war than ever before, after the Soviet Union installed nuclear missiles in Cuba in response to US missiles in Europe and Operation Mongoose. Kennedy responded with a naval blockade and an ultimatum to the Soviets. Khrushchev backed down and the Soviet Union removed the missiles in return for a public American pledge not to invade Cuba and a covert deal to remove US missiles from Turkey.
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Aerial photograph of a Soviet missile site in Cuba, taken by a US spy aircraft, 1 November 1962
Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Signed
The Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty was signed on August 5, 1963, by the United States, the Soviet Union, and over 100 other nations. The treaty banned nuclear weapons tests in the atmosphere, outer space, and underwater, restricting such tests to underground environments. It followed heightened concerns over the militarization of space and was one of the first arms control agreements of the Cold War.
Khrushchev Ousted from Power
In 1964, Khrushchev's Kremlin colleagues managed to oust him, though they allowed him a peaceful retirement. He was accused of rudeness and incompetence, and was blamed for ruining Soviet agriculture, bringing the world to the brink of nuclear war during the Cuban Missile Crisis, and becoming an 'international embarrassment' when he authorized construction of the Berlin Wall. His removal marked the end of a turbulent period in Soviet leadership.
Gulf of Tonkin Incident and Vietnam War Escalation
In 1964, the controversial Gulf of Tonkin incident, in which a US destroyer was alleged to have clashed with North Vietnamese fast attack craft, led to the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution giving President Lyndon B. Johnson broad authorization to increase US military presence in Vietnam. Ground combat units were deployed for the first time and troop levels rose to 184,000. Soviet leader Brezhnev reversed Khrushchev's policy of disengagement and increased aid to North Vietnam.
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US combat operations during the Battle of Ia Drang, South Vietnam, November 1965
1965 CE – 1969 CE
Gemini Program Begins
Project Gemini began its crewed missions in March 1965, with ten crewed missions between March 1965 and November 1966. The program developed key technologies including space rendezvous and docking, extended flight durations, and extravehicular activity, all necessary for the Apollo Moon landing program.
Gemini 6 and 7 rendezvous
Rendezvous of Gemini 6 and 7 in December 1965, demonstrating key space rendezvous technology
Alexei Leonov Performs First Spacewalk
On March 18, 1965, the USSR launched Voskhod 2 with Pavel Belyayev and Alexei Leonov, who performed the first-ever extravehicular activity (EVA). Leonov's spacesuit expanded in the vacuum of space, nearly preventing him from re-entering the airlock, and he had to partially depressurize his suit to a potentially dangerous level to return safely.
Luna 9: First Soft Landing on the Moon
In 1966, Luna 9 achieved the first soft-landing on the Moon and successfully transmitted photography from the surface. This was a major Soviet achievement, providing the first images from the lunar surface and demonstrating that the Moon's surface could support a spacecraft.
First photo of the surface of the Moon
First photo of the surface of the Moon, taken by Luna 9 in 1966
Korolev Dies
Sergei Korolev, the chief designer of the Soviet space program, died on January 14, 1966. His death was a major blow to the Soviet space program; Voskhod 2 had been his final achievement, and according to historian Asif Siddiqi, his accomplishments marked 'the absolute zenith of the Soviet space program, one never, ever attained since.'
Venera 3 Impacts Venus
On March 1, 1966, Venera 3 became the first man-made object to make contact with another planet when it impacted Venus. Despite operational difficulties resulting in loss of contact with the craft, this was a significant milestone in planetary exploration.
Outer Space Treaty Signed
On January 27, 1967, the United States, the USSR, and the United Kingdom signed the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space. The treaty bars weapons of mass destruction in space, limits the Moon and celestial bodies to peaceful purposes, and declares space exploration shall benefit all countries.
Apollo 1 Fire Kills Three Astronauts
On January 27, 1967, the crew of the first crewed Apollo mission — Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger Chaffee — were killed in a fire that swept through their spacecraft cabin during a ground test. The fire was caused by an electrical spark in the spacecraft's pure oxygen atmosphere, and the crew could not escape due to the plug door hatch design.
Apollo 1 fire
Charred interior of the Apollo 1 spacecraft after the fire that killed the crew
Surveyor 3 Lands on Moon, Tests Lunar Soil
Surveyor 3 successfully touched down on the Moon on April 20, 1967, and carried a 'surface sampler' which facilitated tests of the lunar soil. Scientists concluded that lunar soil had a consistency similar to wet sand with sufficient bearing strength to support an Apollo Lunar Module. The Surveyor 3 lander would later be visited by Apollo 12 astronauts.
Moon landing map
Map showing Luna probe landing locations, Surveyor landings, and Apollo landings on the Moon
Soyuz 1 Crash: First In-Flight Spaceflight Fatality
On April 24, 1967, Vladimir Komarov became the first in-flight spaceflight fatality when Soyuz 1 crashed after its parachute system failed during reentry. The mission had been plagued with problems from the start, including a solar panel failure and orientation detector issues, and the reserve parachute became tangled with the drogue chute.
Soyuz 1 crash
Soyuz 1 seen after the crash that killed Vladimir Komarov
Zond 5: First Circumlunar Flight with Living Creatures
In September 1968, Zond 5 made a circumlunar flight with tortoises on board and returned safely to Earth, accomplishing the first successful water landing of the Soviet space program in the Indian Ocean. The mission scared NASA planners, as it took them several days to figure out it was not a piloted flight because voice recordings were transmitted from the craft.
Soyuz 7K-L1 Zond spacecraft
Artist view of the Soyuz 7K-L1 Zond spacecraft used for circumlunar missions
Apollo 7: First Crewed Apollo Mission
On October 11, 1968, Apollo 7 was launched with Grissom's backup crew, accomplishing Apollo 1's original mission to check out the Apollo Command and Service Module in Earth orbit. The eleven-day mission was a total success, with the spacecraft performing a virtually flawless mission, paving the way for the lunar mission schedule.
Apollo 8: First Humans to Orbit the Moon
On December 21, 1968, Frank Borman, James Lovell, and William Anders became the first humans to leave low-Earth orbit and travel to another celestial body, entering lunar orbit on December 24. They made ten orbits in twenty hours and transmitted one of the most watched TV broadcasts in history, concluding with a reading from the Book of Genesis on Christmas Eve.
Earthrise from Apollo 8
Earthrise as seen from Apollo 8 on December 24, 1968, photographed by astronaut William Anders
Soyuz 4 and 5: First Docking of Two Crewed Spacecraft
In January 1969, the Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5 missions achieved the first-ever docking of two crewed spacecraft and the first transfer of crew from one space vehicle to another. This was the completion of the mission originally planned for Soyuz 1 and 2.
N-1 Rocket Explosion on Launch Pad
On July 3, 1969, the Soviet N-1 rocket hit the launch pad after an engine shutdown, destroying itself and the launch facility in a catastrophic explosion. This was a significant setback for the Soviet crewed lunar program, as without the N-1 rocket, the USSR could not send a large enough payload to the Moon to land a human and return him safely.
Apollo 11: First Humans on the Moon
On July 20, 1969, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin became the first humans to land on the Moon, with Armstrong stepping onto the lunar surface at 02:56 UTC on July 21. The first step was witnessed on live television by at least one-fifth of Earth's population. Armstrong's words — 'That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind' — became iconic.
A Man on the Moon
Astronaut on the lunar surface during the Apollo 11 mission
Apollo 11 Returns to Earth
Apollo 11 left lunar orbit and returned to Earth, landing safely in the Pacific Ocean on July 24, 1969. When the spacecraft splashed down, 2,982 days had passed since Kennedy's commitment to landing a man on the Moon; the mission was completed with 161 days to spare. With this, the Americans won the race to the Moon.
Apollo 12: Precision Moon Landing
In November 1969, Apollo 12 made a precision landing on the Moon within walking distance of the Surveyor 3 spacecraft that had landed on April 20, 1967. This demonstrated the ability to land at a specific target on the lunar surface, a key capability for future missions.
Indonesian Mass Killings and Suharto's Rise
From 1965 to 1966, with the aid of the US and other Western governments, the Indonesian military led the mass killing of more than 500,000 members and sympathizers of the Indonesian Communist Party and other leftist organizations. General Suharto wrested control from predecessor Sukarno in an attempt to establish a 'New Order.' A top-secret CIA report stated that the massacres 'rank as one of the worst mass murders of the 20th century.'
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Suharto of Indonesia attending funeral of five generals slain in 30 September Movement, 2 October 1965
Glassboro Summit Conference
In 1967, Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin met with US President Lyndon B. Johnson at the Glassboro Summit Conference in New Jersey. The meeting was an attempt to ease Cold War tensions during a period of ongoing conflict in Vietnam and the Middle East. It represented one of the few direct diplomatic contacts between the superpowers during this tense period.
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Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin with U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson at the 1967 Glassboro Summit Conference
Outer Space Treaty Signed
The Outer Space Treaty was signed on January 27, 1967, by the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom, entering into force on October 10, 1967. The treaty established space as a domain to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes, prohibiting the placement of nuclear weapons or any other weapons of mass destruction in orbit or on celestial bodies. It was a significant arms control achievement during the Cold War.
Tet Offensive in Vietnam
The Tet Offensive of 1968 proved to be the turning point of the Vietnam War, as the communist forces launched a massive coordinated attack across South Vietnam. Despite years of American tutelage and aid, the South Vietnamese forces were unable to withstand the communist offensive and the task fell to US forces. The offensive shattered American public confidence in the war effort and accelerated the eventual US withdrawal.
Soviet Invasion of Czechoslovakia
On 20 August 1968, the Soviet Army, together with most of their Warsaw Pact allies, invaded Czechoslovakia to crush the Prague Spring reform movement. The invasion was followed by a wave of emigration, with an estimated 70,000 Czechs and Slovaks initially fleeing and the total eventually reaching 300,000. The invasion sparked intense protests from Yugoslavia, Romania, China, and Western European countries.
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The invasion of Czechoslovakia by the Soviet Union in 1968 was one of the biggest military operations on European soil since World War II
Sino-Soviet Border Conflict
As a result of the Sino-Soviet split, tensions along the Chinese-Soviet border reached their peak in 1969, when the Soviet Union planned to launch a large-scale nuclear strike against China. US President Richard Nixon intervened and decided to use the conflict to shift the balance of power towards the West through a policy of rapprochement with China. The crisis demonstrated how far the Sino-Soviet split had progressed.
Apollo Moon Landing
In 1969, the United States achieved the Apollo Moon landings, the most notable milestone of the Space Race. Astronaut Frank Borman later described it as 'just a battle in the Cold War.' The Soviet government limited the release of information about the lunar landing, which affected public reaction in the USSR. The achievement represented a major victory for the United States in the technological competition with the Soviet Union.
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Clockwise from top left: Sputnik 1, Apollo 11 Moon landing, Space station Mir
1970 CE – 1974 CE
Luna 16: First Uncrewed Sample Return from Moon
In late 1970, Luna 16 was launched by the Soviet Union and became the first uncrewed probe to return a sample from the Moon. This demonstrated continued Soviet willingness to compete with the US in the space race despite having lost the manned Moon landing aspect.
Venera 7: First Data Returned from Another Planet's Surface
In 1970, the Soviet Union's Venera 7 marked the first time a spacecraft was able to return data after landing on another planet. The probe measured a surface temperature of 475°C and atmospheric pressure of 92 bar on Venus, providing the first direct measurements from another planet's surface.
Lunokhod 1: First Robotic Rover on the Moon
The Soviet Union successfully landed the first robotic rover on the Moon in 1970 with the Lunokhod 1 mission. This was followed by another rover in 1973, demonstrating continued Soviet capability in robotic lunar exploration.
Apollo 13 Aborts Lunar Landing
In April 1970, Apollo 13 had to abort its lunar landing due to an in-flight spacecraft failure when an oxygen tank exploded, but the crew was returned safely to Earth. This near-disaster demonstrated both the risks of space exploration and NASA's ability to improvise solutions under extreme pressure.
Mars 3: First Soft Landing on Mars
In 1971, the Soviet Mars 3 successfully landed on Mars, becoming the first spacecraft to achieve a soft landing on the Red Planet. However, the lander only transmitted data for 14.5 seconds before losing contact, limiting the scientific return of the mission.
Salyut 1: First Space Station Launched
On April 19, 1971, the Soviets launched Salyut 1, the world's first space station. The Soyuz 11 crew successfully docked on June 7 and completed a then-record 22-day stay, but tragically became the second in-flight space fatality during reentry on June 30 when they were asphyxiated due to cabin depressurization.
Apollo-Soyuz Agreement Signed
In April 1972, President Nixon and Soviet Premier Brezhnev negotiated an easing of relations known as détente, and the two nations planned a joint mission to dock the last US Apollo craft with a Soyuz. This agreement represented a significant shift from competition to cooperation in space.
Apollo Program Final Lunar Landing
The Apollo program made its final lunar landing in December 1972 with Apollo 17. In total, the Apollo program involved six crewed Moon landings from 1969 to 1972, and a total of twelve astronauts walked on the surface of the Moon.
Skylab Launched
On May 14, 1973, the United States launched Skylab, a single orbital workstation using a leftover Saturn V rocket from the Apollo program. Skylab was damaged during ascent, losing a solar panel and meteoroid thermal shield, but subsequent crewed missions repaired the station and conducted valuable research.
Skylab Orbital Workshop
Skylab Orbital Workshop as photographed by the Skylab 4 CSM during the final fly-around
N-1 Rocket Program Canceled
In May 1974, the Soviet Union finally canceled the N-1 rocket program after two more launch failures in 1971 and 1972, without achieving a single successful uncrewed test flight. This effectively ended Soviet ambitions for a crewed lunar landing.
Nixon Visits China
In 1972, US President Richard Nixon made his historic visit to China, beginning the process of rapprochement between the two countries. Nixon used the Sino-Soviet conflict to shift the balance of power towards the West in the Cold War. The visit culminated in 1979 with the signing of the Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations by President Carter and Chinese Communist Party leader Deng Xiaoping.
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U.S. President Richard Nixon shakes hands with Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai at Beijing Capital International Airport
SALT I Arms Limitation Treaties Signed
Following Nixon's visit to China, he met with Soviet leaders in Moscow, and these Strategic Arms Limitation Talks resulted in landmark arms control treaties. Nixon and Brezhnev proclaimed a new era of 'peaceful coexistence' and established the groundbreaking new policy of détente between the superpowers. The treaties aimed to limit the development of costly anti-ballistic missiles and nuclear missiles.
1973 Oil Crisis
In the 1973 oil crisis, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) cut their petroleum output, raising oil prices and hurting Western economies. The crisis helped the Soviet Union by generating a huge flow of money from its oil sales. Combined with the growing influence of Third World alignments, the crisis gave less powerful countries more room to assert their independence from both superpowers.
1975 CE – 1979 CE
Venera 9: First Photos of Venus Surface
In 1975, Venera 9 established an orbit around Venus and successfully returned the first photography of the surface of Venus. Venera 10 followed shortly after with additional photography, providing the first visual data from the surface of another planet.
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project: First US-Soviet Space Docking
On July 15, 1975, Soyuz 19 was launched, followed by the Apollo craft six and a half hours later. The two craft rendezvoused and docked on July 17, with the three astronauts and two cosmonauts conducting joint experiments, shaking hands, exchanging gifts, and visiting each other's craft. This mission is considered by many as the final act of the Space Race.
Apollo-Soyuz handshake
American Stafford and Russian Leonov shake hands in space aboard the Apollo-Soyuz docking adapter
Viking 1 and 2 Land on Mars
In 1976, NASA put two successful landers on Mars — Viking 1 and Viking 2. These significantly larger landers took the first photographs from the surface of Mars and conducted extensive scientific experiments. Viking 1 operated for around six years and Viking 2 for over three years.
Surface of Mars taken by Viking 1
Surface of Mars photographed by Viking 1
First Space Shuttle Approach and Landing Test
On August 12, 1977, NASA achieved the first approach and landing test of its Space Shuttle orbiter on a Boeing 747 carrier plane. This was a key milestone in the development of the reusable Space Shuttle system, which would become NASA's primary orbital vehicle.
Soyuz, Space Shuttle, and Energia-Buran comparison
Comparison of Soyuz, US Space Shuttle, and Soviet Energia-Buran spacecraft
Helsinki Accords Signed
In 1975, the Helsinki Accords were signed at the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe, in which the Soviets promised to grant free elections in Europe. The accords were considered a major concession by the Soviets to ensure peace, though in practice the Soviet government significantly curbed civil liberties. The Helsinki Accords also included legally-binding human rights documents that would later be used by dissidents to challenge Soviet authority.
Vietnam War Ends in US Defeat
The Vietnam War ended in 1975 with defeat for the United States, as North Vietnamese forces captured Saigon. The war had descended into a quagmire for the United States, leading to a decline in international prestige and economic stability, derailing arms agreements, and provoking domestic unrest. America's withdrawal from the war led it to embrace a policy of détente with both China and the Soviet Union.
Saur Revolution in Afghanistan
In April 1978, the communist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) seized power in Afghanistan in the Saur Revolution. Within months, opponents of the communist regime launched an uprising in eastern Afghanistan that quickly expanded into a civil war waged by guerrilla mujahideen against government forces. The Soviet Union sent thousands of military advisers to support the PDPA government.
Iranian Revolution
In 1979, the Iranian Revolution ousted the pro-US Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who had been installed following the CIA-backed coup in 1953. The revolution was one of several events that year that undermined President Carter's efforts to limit the arms race with the SALT II agreement. The loss of Iran as a US ally was a major setback for American Cold War strategy in the Middle East.
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Iranian people protesting against the Pahlavi dynasty, during the Iranian Revolution
SALT II Treaty Signed
On 18 June 1979, Soviet General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev and US President Jimmy Carter signed the SALT II arms limitation treaty in Vienna. The treaty aimed to place another limit on the nuclear arms race, but Carter's efforts were undermined by the Iranian Revolution, the Nicaraguan Revolution, and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan later that year. The US Senate never ratified the treaty.
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Soviet general secretary Leonid Brezhnev and US President Jimmy Carter sign the SALT II arms limitation treaty in Vienna on 18 June 1979
Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan
In December 1979, Soviet special forces assassinated Afghan President Hafizullah Amin during Operation Storm-333, and Soviet troops were deployed in large numbers to put Afghanistan under Soviet control. Carter responded by withdrawing the SALT II treaty from ratification, imposing embargoes, and announcing the boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics. The invasion marked the end of détente and the beginning of a renewed Cold War confrontation.
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The Soviet invasion during Operation Storm-333 on 26 December 1979
1980 CE – 1984 CE
Venera 13: First Probe to Drill Another Planet
In 1981, Venera 13 performed a successful soft-landing on Venus and marked the first probe to drill into the surface of another planet and take a sample. It also took an audio sample of the Venusian environment and returned the first color images of the surface of Venus.
First Space Shuttle Orbital Flight
On April 12, 1981, the first orbital test flight of a complete, crewed Space Shuttle was launched, consisting of the orbiter, an external fuel tank, and two solid rocket boosters. The Space Shuttle represented a new era in reusable spacecraft, though the designers underestimated the time and cost of refurbishment between flights.
Space Shuttle comparison
Comparison of Soyuz, US Space Shuttle, and Soviet Energia-Buran spacecraft
Sally Ride: First American Woman in Space
In June 1983, Sally Ride became America's first woman in space on STS-7. NASA had not welcomed female astronauts into its corps until 1978, when six female mission specialists were recruited, nearly 20 years after the Soviet Union sent Valentina Tereshkova into space.
Reagan Elected President; Cold War Intensifies
In 1980, Ronald Reagan won the presidential election, vowing to increase military spending and confront the Soviets everywhere. Both Reagan and new British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher denounced the Soviet Union and its ideology, with Reagan labeling it an 'evil empire.' Reagan's anti-communist position developed into the Reagan Doctrine, which formulated an additional right to subvert existing communist governments.
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President Reagan with Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher during a working luncheon at Camp David, December 1984
Polish Solidarity Movement and Martial Law
Pope John Paul II's visit to Poland in 1979 stimulated a religious and nationalist resurgence centered on the Solidarity movement trade union. In December 1981, Poland's Wojciech Jaruzelski reacted to the crisis by imposing a period of martial law. Reagan imposed economic sanctions on Poland in response, while Soviet ideologist Mikhail Suslov advised Soviet leaders not to intervene for fear of heavy economic sanctions.
Reagan Announces Strategic Defense Initiative
Reagan announced the experimental Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), dubbed 'Star Wars' by the media, a defense program to shoot down missiles in mid-flight. The announcement was part of a massive US military buildup that increased defense spending from 5.3 percent of GNP in 1981 to 6.5 percent in 1986, the largest peacetime defense buildup in US history. The Soviets did not respond by further building their military, as the enormous military expenses were already a heavy burden on their economy.
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Delta 183 launch vehicle lifts off, carrying the Strategic Defense Initiative sensor experiment 'Delta Star'
Korean Air Lines Flight 007 Shot Down
On 1 September 1983, the Soviet Union shot down Korean Air Lines Flight 007, a Boeing 747 with 269 people aboard, including sitting Congressman Larry McDonald. The airliner had flown through Russian prohibited airspace due to a navigational mistake, and the Soviet Air Force treated it as an intruding US spy plane. Reagan characterized the incident as a massacre, and it increased support for military deployment.
1983 Soviet Nuclear False Alarm Incident
During the early hours of 26 September 1983, systems in Serpukhov-15 underwent a glitch that claimed several intercontinental ballistic missiles were heading towards Russia. Officer Stanislav Petrov correctly suspected it was a false alarm, ensuring the Soviets did not respond to the non-existent attack. He has been credited as 'the man who saved the world' for preventing a potential nuclear war.
Able Archer 83 Exercise
The Able Archer 83 exercise in November 1983, a realistic simulation of a coordinated NATO nuclear release, was perhaps the most dangerous moment since the Cuban Missile Crisis, as the Soviet leadership feared that a nuclear attack might be imminent. The exercise demonstrated how close the superpowers came to nuclear war during the renewed Cold War tensions of the early 1980s. It led to a reassessment of US intelligence about Soviet intentions.
1985 CE – 1989 CE
Mir Space Station Assembly Begins
The USSR began assembling the modular space station Mir in orbit in 1986, with assembly continuing until 1996. Mir held records for the largest spacecraft and the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days, until the International Space Station was built starting in 1998.
Atlantis docked to Mir
Space Shuttle Atlantis docked to the Mir space station
Energia-Buran First Orbital Flight
In November 1988, the Soviet Energia-Buran made its only orbital test flight. Unlike the US Shuttle, it could be flown pilotlessly and landed automatically. However, US counterintelligence had baited the Soviets with disinformation about the heat shield design, making it not reusable for repeated flight.
Energia-Buran comparison
Comparison of Soyuz, US Space Shuttle, and Soviet Energia-Buran spacecraft
Gorbachev Becomes Soviet Leader
In 1985, the comparatively youthful Mikhail Gorbachev became General Secretary of the Soviet Union, as the Soviet economy was stagnant and faced a sharp fall in foreign currency earnings due to declining oil prices. Gorbachev investigated measures to revive the ailing state, eventually announcing an agenda of economic reform called perestroika and introducing glasnost, or openness. His reforms would ultimately contribute to the end of the Cold War.
File:President Ronald Reagan and Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev at the first Summit in Geneva
Mikhail Gorbachev in one-to-one discussions with US President Ronald Reagan
Geneva Summit Between Reagan and Gorbachev
The first summit between Reagan and Gorbachev was held in November 1985 in Geneva, Switzerland, as Reagan agreed to renew talks on economic issues and the scaling-back of the arms race in response to Soviet military and political concessions. The summit marked the beginning of a thaw in US-Soviet relations after years of intense Cold War confrontation. A second summit was held in October 1986 in Reykjavík, Iceland.
File:President Ronald Reagan and Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev at the first Summit in Geneva
Mikhail Gorbachev in one-to-one discussions with US President Ronald Reagan at the Geneva Summit
Reagan's 'Tear Down This Wall' Speech
On 12 June 1987, Reagan delivered his famous 'Tear down this wall!' speech in front of the Brandenburg Gate in West Berlin, directly challenging Soviet leader Gorbachev to open the Berlin Wall. The speech became one of the most iconic moments of the Cold War and symbolized the Western commitment to German reunification and freedom. It came at a time when Gorbachev's reforms were beginning to transform the Soviet Union.
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'Tear down this wall!' speech: Reagan speaking in front of the Brandenburg Gate, 12 June 1987
INF Treaty Signed
The Washington Summit of 8-10 December 1987 led to a breakthrough with the signing of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) by Reagan and Gorbachev. The INF treaty eliminated all nuclear-armed, ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges between 500 and 5,500 kilometers and their infrastructure. It was the first arms control agreement to actually eliminate an entire class of nuclear weapons.
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Mikhail Gorbachev and Ronald Reagan sign the INF Treaty at the White House, 1987
Soviet Forces Withdraw from Afghanistan
In 1989, Soviet forces withdrew from Afghanistan without achieving their objectives, after nearly a decade of fighting against mujahideen guerrillas supported by the US, China, Britain, Saudi Arabia, and Pakistan. The war had been dubbed 'the Soviets' Vietnam' by outside observers and was far more disastrous for the Soviets than Vietnam had been for the Americans. The withdrawal marked a major defeat for Soviet foreign policy.
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President Reagan publicizes his support by meeting with Afghan mujahideen leaders in the White House, 1983
Revolutions of 1989 in Eastern Europe
In 1989, the communist governments in Poland and Hungary became the first to negotiate competitive elections, while in Czechoslovakia and East Germany, mass protests unseated entrenched communist leaders. The communist regimes in Bulgaria and Romania also crumbled, with Romania being the only Eastern-bloc country to topple its communist regime violently. The 1989 revolutionary wave swept across Central and Eastern Europe and peacefully overthrew all Soviet-style Marxist-Leninist states.
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East German leader Erich Honecker lost control in August 1989
Pan-European Picnic and Mass East German Exodus
The Pan-European Picnic in August 1989 on the Hungarian-Austrian border started a peaceful movement that the rulers in the Eastern Bloc could not stop. It was the largest movement of refugees from East Germany since the Berlin Wall was built in 1961 and ultimately brought about the fall of the Iron Curtain. The patrons of the picnic, Otto von Habsburg and Hungarian Minister of State Imre Pozsgay, saw the event as an opportunity to test Gorbachev's reaction.
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The Pan-European Picnic took place in August 1989 on the Hungarian-Austrian border
Baltic Way Human Chain
On 23 August 1989, approximately two million people in Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania formed a human chain known as the Baltic Way, stretching 675 kilometers across all three Baltic states. The demonstration was a powerful protest against Soviet occupation and a call for independence. It was one of the most dramatic expressions of the independence movements that were sweeping the Eastern Bloc.
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The human chain in Lithuania during the Baltic Way, 23 August 1989
Berlin Wall Falls
In November 1989, the Berlin Wall fell, symbolizing the collapse of European communist governments and graphically ending the Iron Curtain divide of Europe. The fall of the Wall was the culmination of the tidal wave of change that had swept across Eastern Europe throughout 1989. It paved the way for German reunification and marked the effective end of the Cold War in Europe.
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Remains of the Iron Curtain in the Czech Republic, symbolizing the division that ended with the fall of the Berlin Wall
Cold War Declared Over at Malta Summit
On 3 December 1989, Gorbachev and Bush declared the Cold War over at the Malta Summit. The declaration marked the formal end of the ideological and geopolitical rivalry that had defined international relations for over four decades. The two former adversaries would soon become partners in the Gulf War against Iraq.
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The beginning of the 1990s brought a thaw in relations between the superpowers
1990 CE – 1994 CE
Soviet Union Collapses, Ending Space Race
The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 effectively ended the Space Race, with the Buran program canceled due to lack of funding. The assets of the USSR's space program passed mainly to Russia, and the Cold War competition in space was gradually replaced with cooperation between the US and the newly reconstituted Russian Federation.
Shuttle-Mir and ISS Programs Agreed
In 1993, the US and the newly reconstituted Russian Federation agreed on the Shuttle-Mir and International Space Station programs, formally ending their Cold War competition in space and beginning a new era of cooperation. This agreement built on the foundation laid by the Apollo-Soyuz mission.
Atlantis docked to Mir
Space Shuttle Atlantis docked to the Mir space station, representing US-Russian cooperation in space
Lithuania Declares Independence
After a landslide victory of Sąjūdis in Lithuania, that country declared its independence restored on 11 March 1990, citing the illegality of the Soviet occupation of the Baltic states. Soviet forces attempted to halt the secession by crushing popular demonstrations in Lithuania and Latvia, killing or wounding numerous civilians. However, these actions only bolstered international support for the secessionists.
German Reunification Treaty Signed
In February 1990, Gorbachev agreed with the US-proposed Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany and signed it on 12 September 1990, paving the way for German reunification. When the Berlin Wall came down, Gorbachev's 'Common European Home' concept began to take shape. German reunification was one of the most significant geopolitical changes of the post-Cold War era.
August Coup Attempt in Soviet Union
In August 1991, hardline members of the Soviet government and KGB attempted a coup d'état to reverse Gorbachev's reforms and reassert central government control over the republics. After the coup collapsed, Russian president Yeltsin was seen as a hero for his decisive actions, while Gorbachev's power was effectively ended. The failed coup accelerated the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
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August Coup in Moscow, 1991
Dissolution of the Soviet Union
On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned as President of the Soviet Union, and the USSR dissolved. Fifteen states emerged from the Soviet Union, with the Russian Federation taking full responsibility for all the rights and obligations of the USSR. The dissolution marked the definitive end of the Cold War and fundamentally transformed the global geopolitical order.
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The first Russian McDonald's on Moscow's Pushkin Square, pictured in 1991, symbolizing the opening of Russia to Western culture