Comparing Timelines
Exploring the overlapping histories of "Ottoman Empire" and "Spanish Empire".
Ottoman Empire
1299 - 1924
Spanish Empire
1402 - 1976
1299 CE
Foundation of the Ottoman Beylik
Osman I establishes a small principality in northwestern Anatolia, founding what would become the Ottoman Empire. This beylik emerged from the fragmented Anatolian Beyliks following the decline of the Rum Sultanate. Osman's early followers consisted of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades.
1302 CE
Battle of Bapheus
Ottoman forces under Osman I defeat the Byzantines at Bapheus, marking a significant early victory that contributed to Osman's rise and Ottoman expansion into Byzantine territory. This battle demonstrated the military effectiveness of the early Ottoman forces.
1324 CE
Death of Osman I
Osman I, founder of the Ottoman Empire, dies and is succeeded by his son Orhan. Under Osman's leadership, the small beylik had begun its transformation from a tribal confederation into an organized state that would eventually become a major empire.
1326 CE
Capture of Bursa
Orhan, son of Osman I, captures the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa from the Byzantines, making it the new Ottoman capital. This conquest marked a significant expansion of Ottoman territory and established their first major urban center, supplanting Byzantine control in the region.
1387 CE
Capture of Thessaloniki
Ottoman forces capture the important port city of Thessaloniki from the Venetians and sack it. This conquest demonstrated Ottoman naval capabilities and their expansion into strategically important Mediterranean ports, challenging Venetian commercial dominance.
1389 CE
Battle of Kosovo
Ottoman victory at Kosovo effectively marks the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe. This decisive battle established Ottoman dominance in the Balkans and opened the path for further European conquests.
1396 CE
Battle of Nicopolis
Ottoman forces defeat a large crusading army at Nicopolis, regarded as the last large-scale crusade of the Middle Ages. This victory failed to stop Ottoman advance and demonstrated their military superiority over European coalition forces, securing their position in the Balkans.
1402 CE
Battle of Ankara
Timur defeats Ottoman forces and captures Sultan Bayezid I, throwing the empire into disorder. This devastating defeat by the Timurid Empire temporarily relieved Byzantine pressure on Constantinople and led to a period of Ottoman civil war and fragmentation.
Beginning of Canary Islands Conquest
Norman nobleman Jean de Béthencourt began the conquest of the Canary Islands under a feudal agreement with the Crown of Castile during the reign of Henry III. This marked the beginning of Spanish overseas expansion and would serve as a model for later colonial conquests.
1413 CE
End of Ottoman Interregnum
The Ottoman civil war ends when Mehmed I emerges as sultan and restores Ottoman power. This period of succession struggle among Bayezid's sons lasted from 1402 to 1413, during which the empire was divided and weakened, but Mehmed's victory reunified the state.
1444 CE
Battle of Varna
Murad II repels the Crusade of Varna by defeating Hungarian, Polish, and Wallachian armies under Władysław III of Poland and John Hunyadi. This victory secured Ottoman control over the Balkans and ended the last major crusading effort against the empire.
1448 CE
Second Battle of Kosovo
John Hunyadi's second attempt to attack the Turks with Hungarian and Wallachian forces is defeated at Kosovo. This victory further consolidated Ottoman control over the Balkans and demonstrated the futility of European attempts to roll back Ottoman expansion.
1453 CE
Conquest of Constantinople
Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror captures Constantinople, ending the Byzantine Empire after over 1,000 years. This monumental achievement made the Ottomans masters of the strategic Bosphorus strait and established them as a major European power, with Constantinople becoming their new capital.
1471 CE
Portuguese Discovery of Gold Coast
Portugal discovered the Gold Coast in the Gulf of Guinea, sparking a massive gold rush. This discovery intensified competition between Portugal and Castile for African territories and trade routes, leading to conflicts over lucrative commerce.
1475 CE
War of Castilian Succession Begins
The War of the Castilian Succession provided the Catholic Monarchs with an opportunity to attack Portuguese power and take control of the lucrative Guinea trade. This conflict would reshape Iberian colonial ambitions and territorial divisions.
1479 CE
Marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella
The marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile created a personal union that most scholars view as the foundation of the Spanish monarchy. This dynastic alliance unified the economic and military power of Iberia under the House of Trastámara.
Treaty of Alcáçovas
This treaty ended the War of Castilian Succession and established Portuguese dominance over African territories while securing Castilian control of the Canary Islands. It represented a major diplomatic victory for Portugal and forced Spain to seek alternative routes to Asia.
1492 CE
Conquest of Granada Completed
Ferdinand and Isabella defeated the last Muslim king and completed the Christian reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula after a ten-year war. This victory earned them the title of Catholic Monarchs from Pope Alexander VI and freed resources for overseas expansion.
Capitulations of Santa Fe
Christopher Columbus obtained his appointment as viceroy and governor of lands he might discover from the Catholic Monarchs. This document established the first administrative organization in the Indies and set the legal framework for Spanish colonization.
Columbus's First Voyage
Christopher Columbus's arrival in the Americas marked the beginning of Spanish colonization and the European Age of Discovery. This voyage fundamentally changed world history by connecting the Old and New Worlds permanently.
1493 CE
Inter Caetera Papal Bull
Pope Alexander VI issued the Inter caetera papal bull, which solidified Spain's claim to the newly discovered lands in the Americas. This papal decree provided religious and legal justification for Spanish colonization efforts.
1494 CE
Treaty of Tordesillas
Spain and Portugal divided the world into two spheres of influence, with Spain receiving exclusive rights to establish colonies in most of the New World. This treaty fundamentally shaped global colonization patterns and territorial claims.
1496 CE
Foundation of Santo Domingo
Bartholomew Columbus founded Santo Domingo, which became the first permanent European city in the Americas. This stone-built city served as the administrative center for Spanish colonial operations and the model for future colonial settlements.
1497 CE
Conquest of Melilla
Spain conquered Melilla in North Africa, marking the beginning of Spanish expansion into Muslim territories outside the Iberian Peninsula. This conquest established Spain's presence in North Africa and demonstrated its military capabilities.
1508 CE
Juan Ponce de León Conquers Puerto Rico
Juan Ponce de León conquered Puerto Rico, expanding Spanish control in the Caribbean. This conquest provided Spain with another strategic base for further expansion and demonstrated the effectiveness of Spanish military tactics in the New World.
1510 CE
Foundation of Santa María la Antigua del Darién
Vasco Núñez de Balboa established the first permanent settlement on the American mainland in present-day Panama. This settlement served as a crucial base for further exploration and the eventual discovery of the Pacific Ocean.
1513 CE
Balboa Discovers the Pacific Ocean
Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and became the first European to see the Pacific Ocean from the American coast. He claimed the Pacific and all adjoining lands for the Spanish Crown, vastly expanding Spanish territorial claims.
1514 CE
Battle of Chaldiran
Sultan Selim I defeats Shah Ismail of Safavid Iran at Chaldiran, dramatically expanding Ottoman eastern and southern frontiers. This victory established Ottoman dominance over eastern Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia, while also securing the empire's eastern border against Persian expansion.
1516 CE
Charles I Becomes King of Spain
Charles I inherited the Spanish throne, beginning Habsburg rule in Spain. As the grandson of the Catholic Monarchs, he brought together the Castilian empire in the Americas with Habsburg possessions in Europe, creating a vast global empire.
1517 CE
Ottoman Conquest of Egypt
Selim I defeats and annexes the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt, establishing Ottoman rule in Egypt and creating a naval presence on the Red Sea. This conquest brought the wealthy province of Egypt under Ottoman control and positioned the empire to compete with Portuguese expansion in the Indian Ocean.
1519 CE
Cortés Begins Conquest of Mexico
Hernán Cortés organized an expedition of 550 conquistadors and sailed for Mexico, defying the governor of Hispaniola. This unauthorized expedition would lead to the conquest of the Aztec Empire and establish Spanish dominance in Mesoamerica.
Battle of Potonchán
Cortés's forces defeated a 10,000-strong Chontal Mayan army at Potonchán, demonstrating Spanish military superiority and opening the path to the Aztec Empire. This victory established Spanish dominance over indigenous forces in Mexico.
Spanish Victory over Tlaxcalans
360 Castilians and 2,300 Totonac allies defeated a 20,000-strong Tlaxcalan army, leading to thousands of Tlaxcalans joining the Spanish against the Aztecs. This alliance was crucial for the eventual conquest of the Aztec Empire.
Spanish Enter Tenochtitlan
Cortés's forces entered Emperor Moctezuma II's capital city of Tenochtitlan, marking a crucial moment in the conquest of the Aztec Empire. This peaceful entry would soon turn into violent conflict and siege warfare.
1520 CE
Battle of Cempoala
Cortés defeated Pánfilo de Narváez's force sent to punish him for his unauthorized invasion of Mexico. This victory eliminated Spanish opposition to Cortés's conquest and reinforced his forces with Narváez's surviving troops.
La Noche Triste
The Spanish were driven out of Tenochtitlan during La Noche Triste, suffering heavy losses and losing all their gold and guns. This defeat demonstrated Aztec military capability and forced the Spanish to regroup for a prolonged siege.
Battle of Otumba
The Spanish and their allies, without artillery or arquebusiers, repelled 100,000 Aztecs at Otumba. This remarkable victory allowed the Spanish to escape and regroup, demonstrating their tactical superiority despite being outnumbered.
1521 CE
Capture of Belgrade
Suleiman the Magnificent captures Belgrade, opening the path for Ottoman expansion into Central Europe. This strategic victory removed a key Hungarian fortress and paved the way for the Ottoman conquest of much of the Kingdom of Hungary.
Fall of Tenochtitlan
After a prolonged siege, Tenochtitlan fell to Spanish forces and Cuauhtémoc was captured. At least 100,000 Aztecs died during the siege, marking the end of the Aztec Empire and the beginning of Spanish colonial rule in Mexico.
1523 CE
Alvarado Begins Central American Conquest
Pedro de Alvarado commenced the conquest of northern Central America following the fall of the Aztec Empire. This expansion extended Spanish control throughout Mesoamerica and established the foundation for colonial administration in the region.
1526 CE
Battle of Mohács
Suleiman the Magnificent achieves a historic victory at Mohács, establishing Ottoman rule in the territory of present-day Hungary and other Central European territories. This decisive battle effectively ended Hungarian independence and opened Central Europe to Ottoman expansion.
1529 CE
First Siege of Vienna
Suleiman the Magnificent lays siege to Vienna but fails to take the city, marking the furthest extent of Ottoman expansion into Europe. This failure represented the first major check to Ottoman expansion and demonstrated the limits of their military reach into Central Europe.
1532 CE
Pizarro Conquers the Inca Empire
Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire by capturing its leader Atahualpa during a surprise attack in Cajamarca, resulting in the massacre of thousands of Incas. This conquest opened vast territories in South America to Spanish colonization.
1535 CE
Ottoman Conquest of Baghdad
Ottoman Turks take Baghdad from the Persians, establishing Ottoman rule in Iraq and gaining naval access to the Persian Gulf. This conquest extended Ottoman control over Mesopotamia and positioned the empire to challenge Portuguese dominance in the Indian Ocean trade routes.
Establishment of Viceroyalty of New Spain
The Viceroyalty of New Spain was established to govern Spanish territories in North America and the Caribbean. This administrative reorganization centralized colonial government and established the framework for Spanish rule in the Americas.
1538 CE
Battle of Preveza
Ottoman admiral Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha defeats the Holy League of Charles V under Andrea Doria at Preveza. This naval victory established Ottoman dominance in the Eastern Mediterranean and secured their control over key sea routes.
1542 CE
Establishment of Viceroyalty of Peru
The Viceroyalty of Peru was established to govern Spanish territories in western South America, including present-day Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, and parts of Chile and Argentina. This created the administrative structure for Spanish rule in South America.
1545 CE
Discovery of Potosí Silver Mines
The rich silver mines of Potosí in Bolivia were discovered, becoming one of the most important sources of wealth for the Spanish Empire. These mines would produce vast quantities of silver that financed Spanish military campaigns and territorial expansion.
1556 CE
Philip II Becomes King of Spain
Philip II inherited the Spanish throne from his father Charles V, ruling over one of the first truly global empires. His reign would see the height of Spanish power and the colonization of the Philippines, making Spain a dominant world power.
1559 CE
Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis
Philip II reaffirmed Spanish control over the Kingdom of Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, and the Duchy of Milan through this treaty. This agreement solidified Spanish dominance in Italy and established it as the core of Spanish power in Europe.
1565 CE
Spanish Colonization of Philippines Begins
Spanish explorer Miguel López de Legazpi arrived in the Philippines, beginning Spanish colonization of the archipelago. This expansion made Philip II ruler of one of the first true globe-spanning empires, connecting Asia to the Spanish colonial system.
1566 CE
Death of Suleiman the Magnificent
Suleiman the Magnificent dies of natural causes during the siege of Szigetvár, ending the reign of the Ottoman Empire's most celebrated sultan. His death marked the end of the classical period of Ottoman expansion, with the empire spanning approximately three continents at its peak.
1571 CE
Battle of Lepanto
The Holy League consisting of Spanish and Venetian fleets wins a victory over the Ottoman fleet at Lepanto, off southwestern Greece. Catholic forces killed over 30,000 Turks and destroyed 200 ships, dealing a symbolic blow to Ottoman naval invincibility, though the empire quickly recovered.
1580 CE
Spanish Annexation of Portugal
Philip II's victory in the War of the Portuguese Succession led to the annexation of Portugal and the creation of the Iberian Union. This effectively integrated Portugal's overseas empire into Spain's domain, creating an unprecedented global empire.
1639 CE
Treaty of Zuhab
The Treaty of Zuhab decisively divides the Caucasus and adjacent regions between the Ottoman and Safavid empires, confirming the territorial arrangements established in the 1555 Peace of Amasya. This treaty established lasting borders between the two empires in the region.
1640 CE
Portugal Regains Independence
Portugal regained its independence from Spain, ending the Iberian Union that had lasted since 1580. This separation reduced Spanish territorial control and marked the beginning of the decline of Spanish global dominance.
1669 CE
Conquest of Crete Completed
The Ottomans complete their conquest of Crete from Venice, ending a long campaign that began decades earlier. This victory extended Ottoman control over the Eastern Mediterranean and eliminated a major Venetian stronghold in the region.
1683 CE
Second Siege of Vienna
Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha leads a massive Ottoman army in a second attempt to capture Vienna, but the siege fails catastrophically. The Ottoman forces are swept away by allied Habsburg, German, and Polish forces led by Polish king John III Sobieski, marking the beginning of Ottoman decline in Europe.
1697 CE
Battle of Zenta
Mustafa II leads a counterattack against the Habsburgs in Hungary but suffers a disastrous defeat at Zenta in modern Serbia. This crushing defeat further weakened Ottoman position in Europe and contributed to major territorial losses in subsequent peace negotiations.
1699 CE
Treaty of Karlowitz
The Treaty of Karlowitz ends the Great Turkish War, with the Ottomans surrendering control of significant territories, many permanently. This treaty marked the first major territorial losses for the Ottoman Empire and signaled the beginning of its long retreat from Europe.
1700 CE
Death of Charles II and War of Spanish Succession
Charles II of Spain died without an heir, leading to the War of the Spanish Succession. This conflict would determine the future of the Spanish Empire and result in the establishment of Bourbon rule in Spain.
Philip V Becomes King of Spain
Philip V, a French Bourbon prince and grandson of Louis XIV, became King of Spain after the War of Spanish Succession. This marked the beginning of Bourbon rule in Spain and initiated significant administrative and economic reforms.
1711 CE
Pruth River Campaign Victory
Ottoman forces achieve victory in the Pruth River Campaign against Russia in Moldavia, after Charles XII of Sweden persuaded Sultan Ahmed III to declare war on Russia. This victory temporarily restored Ottoman prestige after earlier defeats.
1713 CE
Treaties of Utrecht
The Treaties of Utrecht ended the War of Spanish Succession, confirming Philip V as King of Spain while ceding European territories to other powers. The treaty also granted Britain the asiento de negros, allowing British merchants to sell slaves in Spanish America.
1717 CE
Austrian Capture of Belgrade
Austrian troops led by Prince Eugene of Savoy capture Belgrade from the Ottomans. Austrian control in Serbia lasted until the Turkish victory in the Austro-Russian–Turkish War, but this loss demonstrated continued Ottoman military weakness in Europe.
1729 CE
First Ottoman Printing Press
Ibrahim Muteferrika's printing press publishes its first book, marking the beginning of Ottoman printing. Despite initial religious opposition, this technological advancement represented an important step in Ottoman modernization and the spread of knowledge.
1739 CE
Treaty of Belgrade
The Treaty of Belgrade ends the Austro-Russian–Turkish War, resulting in Ottoman recovery of northern Bosnia, Habsburg Serbia (including Belgrade), Oltenia and southern parts of the Banat of Temeswar. However, the empire lost the port of Azov to the Russians.
1741 CE
Battle of Cartagena de Indias
Spain successfully repulsed a major British attack on the fortress of Cartagena de Indias in present-day Colombia. This victory helped secure Spanish dominance in the Caribbean and demonstrated the effectiveness of Spanish colonial defenses.
1774 CE
Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca
The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca ends the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774, providing freedom of worship for Christian citizens in Ottoman-controlled Wallachia and Moldavia. This treaty marked a significant Russian victory and increased Russian influence in Ottoman territories.
1776 CE
Establishment of Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata
Spain created the Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata to better administer its South American territories and counter Portuguese expansion. This administrative reorganization reflected Bourbon efforts to modernize colonial government and improve economic efficiency.
1780 CE
Tupac Amaru Uprising
A major indigenous uprising led by Tupac Amaru II erupted in Peru, challenging Spanish colonial authority. This rebellion demonstrated growing unrest with Bourbon reforms and tighter colonial control, foreshadowing later independence movements.
1781 CE
Siege of Pensacola
Spanish forces led by Bernardo de Gálvez captured Pensacola from the British during the American Revolutionary War. This victory was part of Spain's successful Gulf Coast campaign that helped recapture Florida from British control.
1803 CE
Louisiana Purchase
Napoleon sold the Louisiana Territory to the United States, ending Spanish control over this vast region. This transaction marked the first major territorial loss for Spain in the 19th century and reduced Spanish influence in North America.
1804 CE
Serbian Revolution Begins
The Serbian revolution begins, marking the start of an era of national awakening in the Balkans during the Eastern Question. This uprising represented the first successful national liberation movement against Ottoman rule and inspired other Balkan peoples.
1808 CE
Napoleonic Invasion of Spain
Napoleon Bonaparte invaded the Iberian Peninsula and placed his brother Joseph on the Spanish throne, creating a crisis of legitimacy. This event triggered the Peninsular War and sparked independence movements throughout Spanish America.
1810 CE
Argentine Independence Movement Begins
Argentina began its independence movement, marking the start of widespread Spanish American wars of independence. This movement would inspire similar independence struggles throughout Spanish America and lead to the gradual dissolution of the Spanish Empire.
Mexican War of Independence Begins
The Mexican War of Independence began, initiating more than a decade of struggle against Spanish rule. This conflict would eventually lead to Mexican independence in 1821 and the loss of Spain's most valuable North American territory.
1819 CE
Adams-Onís Treaty
Spain ceded its claims in the western United States to America and sold Florida, establishing a boundary between New Spain and the U.S. This treaty marked a significant reduction in Spanish territorial claims in North America.
1821 CE
Greek War of Independence Begins
The Greeks declare war on the Sultan, beginning the Greek War of Independence. A rebellion that originated in Moldavia was followed by the main revolution in the Peloponnese, which became the first part of the Ottoman Empire to achieve independence in 1829.
Mexican Independence
Mexico gained independence from Spain after more than a decade of warfare, ending Spanish rule in its most valuable North American territory. This independence led to the subsequent independence of Central American provinces by 1823.
1824 CE
Battle of Ayacucho
The decisive Battle of Ayacucho effectively ended Spanish rule in South America, with the captured Royalist army consisting mostly of Spanish Americans rather than Spaniards. This victory secured independence for Peru and marked the end of major Spanish military presence in South America.
1826 CE
Destruction of Janissary Corps
Sultan Mahmud II eliminates the Janissary corps in the Auspicious Incident, crushing their revolt and disbanding the powerful military organization. This dramatic reform removed a major obstacle to modernization and allowed for the creation of a modern Ottoman army.
1827 CE
Battle of Navarino
Muhammad Ali of Egypt loses his fleet at the Battle of Navarino during the Greek War of Independence. This naval defeat was costly for Muhammad Ali and contributed to the eventual Greek independence, while also weakening Ottoman naval power in the Mediterranean.
1830 CE
Greek Independence Achieved
Greece achieves formal independence from the Ottoman Empire, becoming the first Ottoman territory to successfully break away through nationalist revolution. This independence inspired other Balkan peoples and marked the beginning of the empire's territorial disintegration in Europe.
French Invasion of Algeria
The French invade the Deylik of Algiers, beginning the French conquest of Algeria. The campaign took 21 days and resulted in over 5,000 Algerian military casualties and about 2,600 French ones, marking the beginning of French colonial rule in North Africa.
1831 CE
First Egyptian-Ottoman War Begins
Muhammad Ali of Egypt revolts against Sultan Mahmud II, beginning the first Egyptian-Ottoman War. The French-trained Egyptian army under Ibrahim Pasha defeats Ottoman forces and advances deep into Anatolia, reaching within 320 km of Constantinople.
1833 CE
Convention of Kütahya
The Convention of Kütahya ends the first Egyptian-Ottoman War, with Muhammad Ali agreeing to abandon his campaign against the Sultan in exchange for governorship of several provinces including Crete, Aleppo, Tripoli, Damascus and Sidon, effectively gaining control of modern Syria and Lebanon.
1839 CE
Tanzimat Edict Issued
The Edict of Gülhane launches the Tanzimat period of Ottoman reforms, introducing constitutional changes that led to a modern conscripted army, banking system reforms, decriminalization of homosexuality, replacement of religious law with secular law, and modernization of various institutions.
1840 CE
Ottoman Ministry of Post Established
The Ottoman Ministry of Post is established in Istanbul, marking an important step in modernizing Ottoman communications and administration. This development was part of the broader Tanzimat reforms aimed at modernizing the empire's infrastructure.
1847 CE
Ottoman Telegraph Patent
American inventor Samuel Morse receives an Ottoman patent for the telegraph, issued by Sultan Abdülmecid who personally tested the invention. This technological adoption represented Ottoman efforts to modernize communications infrastructure during the Tanzimat period.
1853 CE
Crimean War Begins
The Crimean War begins as part of a long-running contest between major European powers for influence over territories of the declining Ottoman Empire. The financial burden of the war forces the Ottoman state to issue foreign loans amounting to 5 million pounds sterling.
1861 CE
Spanish Annexation of Santo Domingo
Spain annexed Santo Domingo, which had been independent since 1821. This recolonization effort led to a guerrilla war in 1863 and proved costly for Spain, which spent over 33 million pesos fighting insurgents before withdrawing in 1865.
1865 CE
Spanish Withdrawal from Santo Domingo
Spain withdrew from Santo Domingo after spending over 33 million pesos fighting insurgents, with 10,888 Spanish soldiers killed or wounded and 18,000 dead from all causes. This costly failure demonstrated the difficulty of reestablishing colonial control.
1876 CE
Ottoman Constitution Proclaimed
The Ottoman Constitution, called the Kanûn-u Esâsî, is proclaimed, establishing the empire's First Constitutional Era. However, this constitutional period was short-lived, with the parliament surviving for only two years before the sultan suspended it.
1878 CE
Russo-Turkish War Ends
The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 ends with a decisive victory for Russia. As a result, Ottoman holdings in Europe decline sharply: Bulgaria becomes an independent principality, Romania achieves full independence, and Serbia and Montenegro gain complete independence.
Austria-Hungary Occupies Bosnia-Herzegovina
Austria-Hungary unilaterally occupies the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Novi Pazar, further reducing Ottoman territory in Europe. This occupation was formalized at the Congress of Berlin and represented another major territorial loss for the empire.
1882 CE
British Occupation of Egypt
Britain sends troops to Egypt to put down the Urabi Revolt, effectively gaining control of the territory. Sultan Abdul Hamid II was too paranoid to mobilize his own army, fearing it would result in a coup d'état, allowing British control to be established.
1894 CE
Hamidian Massacres Begin
Between 100,000 and 300,000 Armenians living throughout the empire are killed in what becomes known as the Hamidian massacres. These systematic killings represent a dark period in Ottoman history and foreshadow the later Armenian genocide during World War I.
1898 CE
Spanish-American War Begins
The United States declared war on Spain, marking the start of the Spanish-American War. This conflict would result in Spain losing its remaining territories in the Americas and the Pacific, effectively ending the Spanish Empire.
Treaty of Paris (1898)
The Treaty of Paris ended the Spanish-American War, with Spain ceding Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Guam to the U.S. and selling the Philippines for $20 million. This treaty marked the effective end of the Spanish Empire as a global power.
1899 CE
German-Spanish Treaty
Spain sold its remaining Pacific Ocean possessions to Germany, retaining only its African territories. This transaction completed Spain's withdrawal from the Pacific and marked the end of its global maritime empire.
1908 CE
Young Turk Revolution
The Young Turk Revolution led by the Committee of Union and Progress reestablishes constitutional monarchy in the Ottoman Empire. This revolution restored the Constitution and brought in multi-party politics, offering hope for modernization and reform of the empire's institutions.
Austria-Hungary Annexes Bosnia-Herzegovina
Austria-Hungary officially annexes Bosnia and Herzegovina, taking advantage of the civil strife following the Young Turk Revolution. This annexation further reduced Ottoman territory and increased tensions in the Balkans leading up to World War I.
1911 CE
Italo-Turkish War
The Ottoman Empire loses its North African territories and the Dodecanese to Italy in the Italo-Turkish War. Despite military reforms that reconstituted the Ottoman Modern Army, the empire could not prevent this territorial loss to Italian colonial expansion.
1912 CE
First Balkan War
The Ottoman Empire loses almost all of its European territories in the First Balkan War, retaining only East Thrace (European Turkey). This devastating defeat resulted in around 400,000 Muslims fleeing with the retreating Ottoman armies, with many dying from cholera.
Spanish Morocco Established
Morocco was divided between French and Spanish protectorates, with Spain receiving the northern region. This division established Spanish Morocco as one of Spain's last significant colonial territories in the 20th century.
1913 CE
CUP Coup d'État
The Committee of Union and Progress leads a coup d'état that establishes a dictatorship in the Ottoman Empire. Following the disastrous Balkan Wars, the CUP became increasingly radicalized and nationalistic, abandoning constitutional government for authoritarian rule.
1914 CE
Ottoman Entry into World War I
The Ottoman Empire enters World War I on the side of the Central Powers with a combined German-Ottoman surprise attack on the Black Sea coast of the Russian Empire. This decision would prove catastrophic for the empire, leading to its eventual dissolution.
1915 CE
Armenian Genocide Begins
The Ottoman government and Kurdish tribes begin the systematic extermination of the ethnic Armenian population, resulting in the deaths of up to 1.5 million Armenians. The genocide was implemented through wholesale killing of men and deportation of women, children, and elderly on death marches to the Syrian desert.
1916 CE
Arab Revolt Begins
The Arab Revolt begins with British support, officially initiated at Mecca. Based on the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence, the revolt aimed to create a single unified Arab state stretching from Aleppo to Aden, turning the tide against the Ottomans in the Middle East.
1918 CE
Armistice of Mudros
The defeated Ottoman Empire signs the Armistice of Mudros, effectively ending Ottoman participation in World War I. This armistice led to the occupation of Istanbul by combined British, French, Italian, and Greek forces and set the stage for the empire's partition.
1919 CE
Greek Occupation of Smyrna
Greece takes control of the area around Smyrna (now İzmir) as part of the post-war occupation of Ottoman territories. This occupation was part of the broader Allied partition of the Ottoman Empire and contributed to the rise of Turkish nationalist resistance.
1920 CE
Treaty of Sèvres
The partition of the Ottoman Empire is finalized under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres. This treaty, designed in the Conference of London, allowed the Sultan to retain his position and title but severely reduced Ottoman territory and sovereignty.
1921 CE
Battle of Annual
Spanish forces suffered a major military defeat against Moroccan insurgents led by Abdelkrim during the Rif War. This disaster was described as occurring during 'the most acute period of Spanish decadence' and led to the use of chemical weapons.
1922 CE
Abolition of the Sultanate
The Ottoman sultanate is abolished by the Turkish nationalist movement led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. This marked the end of over 600 years of Ottoman rule and paved the way for the establishment of the Republic of Turkey.
Last Sultan Leaves Turkey
Mehmed VI, the last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, leaves the country after the abolition of the Ottoman sultanate. His departure marked the definitive end of the Ottoman dynasty's rule and the complete transition to the new Turkish republic.
1923 CE
Republic of Turkey Established
The Republic of Turkey is established in the new capital city of Ankara, replacing the Ottoman Empire. This marked the complete transformation from a multi-ethnic empire to a modern nation-state under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.
1924 CE
Abolition of the Caliphate
The caliphate is abolished, ending the Ottoman claim to leadership of the Muslim world. This final act completed the dismantling of Ottoman institutions and marked the definitive end of the Ottoman Empire's religious and political authority.
1925 CE
Alhucemas Landing
The Spanish Army and Navy, with French collaboration, conducted the Alhucemas landing, ending the Rif War. This operation is considered the first successful amphibious landing in history supported by seaborne air power and tanks.
1956 CE
Spanish Morocco Independence
When French Morocco became independent, Spain surrendered Spanish Morocco to the new nation but retained control of Sidi Ifni, Tarfaya, and Spanish Sahara. This marked the beginning of the end of Spanish colonial presence in North Africa.
1968 CE
Equatorial Guinea Independence
Under pressure from Equatoguinean nationalists and the United Nations, Spain announced it would grant independence to Equatorial Guinea. This decision marked Spain's withdrawal from its last significant African colony.
1975 CE
Spanish Withdrawal from Western Sahara
The Green March prompted Spanish withdrawal from Spanish Sahara under Moroccan military pressure, ending Spanish control over its last major colonial territory. The future of this former Spanish colony remains disputed to this day.
1976 CE
End of Spanish Empire
The Spanish Empire officially ended in 1976 with the completion of decolonization processes. This marked the conclusion of nearly 500 years of Spanish colonial rule and the transformation of Spain into a modern European nation-state.