Han dynasty Kingdoms 195 BC
Map showing the early Han dynasty's administrative structure with thirteen direct-controlled commanderies and ten semi-autonomous kingdoms, representing the foundation of Han imperial governance
Han dynasty
Timeline of the Han dynasty (202 BC - 220 AD), one of China's most influential imperial dynasties that established lasting political, cultural, and technological foundations for Chinese civilization.
202 BCE - 181 BCE
Battle of Gaixia - Liu Bang Defeats Xiang Yu
Liu Bang decisively defeated Xiang Yu at the Battle of Gaixia in modern-day Anhui, ending the Chu-Han Contention. This victory allowed Liu Bang to reunify China and establish the Han dynasty, becoming Emperor Gaozu.
Xiongnu Defeat Han Forces at Baideng
The Xiongnu nomadic confederation defeated Han forces at Baideng in what is now Shanxi province. This military defeat forced the Han to adopt a policy of appeasement, leading to the heqin agreement with tribute payments to the Xiongnu.
Statue of a horse trampling a Xiongnu warrior
Monument at the mausoleum of Western Han general Huo Qubing, representing later Han victories over the Xiongnu
Heqin Agreement Established
The heqin agreement was signed between the Han and Xiongnu, nominally treating both leaders as equal partners in a royal marriage alliance. However, the Han were forced to send large amounts of tribute including silk, food, and wine to the Xiongnu.
Grand Empress Dowager Lü Zhi Abolishes Private Minting
Grand Empress Dowager Lü Zhi reversed Emperor Gaozu's policy of allowing private coin minting, establishing government control over currency production. This was part of early efforts to centralize economic control under the Han dynasty.
158 BCE - 137 BCE
Rebellion of the Seven States
The largest insurrection by Han kings occurred when seven kingdoms rebelled against imperial authority. This rebellion led to significant reforms that limited the power of kingdoms and increased central government control over the empire.
Reforms Limiting Kingdom Powers
Following the Rebellion of the Seven States, the imperial court enacted reforms that divided former kingdom territories into new commanderies under central control. Kings lost the ability to appoint their own staff, becoming nominal heads of their fiefs.
Zhang Qian's Diplomatic Mission Begins
Diplomat Zhang Qian began his famous journey to Central Asia, establishing Chinese contacts with many surrounding civilizations including Dayuan, Kangju, and Daxia. His travels laid the foundation for the Silk Road trade network.
136 BCE - 115 BCE
Emperor Wu Adopts Confucianism as State Ideology
Emperor Wu abolished all academic chairs not concerned with the Five Classics, giving Confucianism exclusive patronage. This marked a fundamental shift in Chinese political philosophy and education that would influence China for millennia.
Failed Assassination Plot at Mayi
A Han court plot to assassinate the Xiongnu Chanyu at Mayi failed, ending the heqin agreement. This failure prompted Emperor Wu to launch a series of massive military invasions into Xiongnu territory, fundamentally changing Han foreign policy.
Zhang Qian Returns from Central Asia
Zhang Qian completed his diplomatic mission to Central Asia, bringing back crucial intelligence about the Western Regions. His reports provided the Han with detailed knowledge of Central Asian kingdoms and trade routes.
Imperial University Established
Emperor Wu established the Imperial University to provide Confucian education for government nominees. This institution became central to Chinese education and bureaucratic training, eventually growing to over 30,000 students by the 2nd century AD.
Model of the Han dynasty royal academy
Reconstruction showing the architectural design of Han educational institutions
Han Forces Expel Xiongnu from Hexi Corridor
Han military forces successfully expelled the Xiongnu from the vast Hexi Corridor territory spanning to Lop Nur. This victory secured a crucial section of what would become the Silk Road and demonstrated growing Han military capability.
Introduction of Wuzhu Coin
Emperor Wu introduced the wuzhu coin weighing 5 zhu, abandoning the ban liang system entirely. The wuzhu became China's standard currency until the Tang dynasty, representing a major monetary reform that lasted for centuries.
Battle of Mobei - Decisive Victory Over Xiongnu
Han commanders Huo Qubing and Wei Qing achieved a decisive victory at the Battle of Mobei, forcing the Xiongnu court to flee north of the Gobi Desert. Han forces reached as far north as Lake Baikal, marking the culmination of Emperor Wu's military campaigns.
Nationalization of Salt and Iron Industries
Emperor Wu nationalized the private salt and iron industries, creating government monopolies to finance military campaigns and frontier settlements. This represented a major expansion of state control over the economy.
114 BCE - 93 BCE
Central Government Monopolizes Coinage
The central government closed commandery mints and monopolized the issue of coinage due to inferior quality and lighter weight of locally-issued coins. This centralization of monetary control strengthened imperial authority.
Han Conquest of Nanyue
Han naval forces conquered the kingdom of Nanyue, expanding the Han realm into what are now modern Guangdong, Guangxi, and northern Vietnam. This southern expansion significantly increased Han territory and population.
Conquest of Dian Kingdom
Han forces conquered the Dian Kingdom in what is now Yunnan province, bringing this southwestern region under imperial control. This expansion extended Han influence into the mountainous regions of southern China.
Establishment of Korean Commanderies
Han forces conquered Gojoseon and established the Xuantu and Lelang commanderies in the northern Korean Peninsula. This expansion brought Han administration and Chinese culture to the Korean peninsula for the first time.
Nationalization of Liquor Industry
The central government nationalized the profitable liquor trade industry as part of Emperor Wu's economic policies to fund military campaigns. This monopoly was later repealed in 81 BC in favor of taxation.
92 BCE - 71 BCE
Liquor Monopoly Repealed
The government liquor monopoly was repealed and replaced with a property tax of two coins for every unit traded privately. This marked a shift away from direct state control toward taxation-based revenue generation.
70 BCE - 49 BCE
Protectorate of the Western Regions Established
After Han victory over the Xiongnu in the Tarim Basin, the Protectorate of the Western Regions was established to handle the region's defense and foreign affairs. This formalized Han control over the Silk Road trade routes.
Huhanye Chanyu Submits to Han
The Xiongnu leader Huhanye finally submitted to the Han as a tributary vassal, ending decades of warfare. This submission marked the effective end of the Xiongnu threat to Han northern borders.
48 BCE - 27 BCE
Battle of Zhizhi - Rival Chanyu Killed
Han forces under Chen Tang and Gan Yanshou killed Zhizhi Chanyu, Huhanye's rival claimant to the Xiongnu throne, at the Battle of Zhizhi in modern Kazakhstan. This eliminated the last major Xiongnu resistance to Han authority.
26 BCE - 5 BCE
Halley's Comet Recorded
Han dynasty astronomers recorded the appearance of the comet now known as Halley's Comet, demonstrating the sophisticated astronomical observation capabilities of Han scholars and their systematic recording of celestial phenomena.
4 BCE - 17 CE
First Nationwide Census
The first nationwide census in Chinese history was conducted, registering the Han's total population as 57,671,400 individuals across 12,366,470 households. This demonstrated the administrative sophistication of the Han government.
Death of Emperor Ping
Emperor Ping died, leading to the succession crisis that would bring Wang Mang to power. Ruzi Ying was chosen as heir, but Wang Mang was appointed to serve as acting emperor for the child.
Wang Mang Establishes Xin Dynasty
Wang Mang claimed the divine Mandate of Heaven called for the end of the Han dynasty and established his own Xin dynasty. This usurpation interrupted the Han dynasty and initiated a period of major social and economic reforms.
Massive Yellow River Floods
Massive floods of the Yellow River occurred due to gradual silt build-up that overwhelmed flood control works. The river split into two branches, causing widespread displacement and contributing to Wang Mang's downfall.
18 CE - 39 CE
Battle of Kunyang
Liu Xiu distinguished himself at the Battle of Kunyang, a crucial victory against Wang Mang's forces. This battle marked a turning point in the rebellion against the Xin dynasty and established Liu Xiu as a major leader.
Wang Mang Killed by Insurgents
An insurgent mob forced their way into the Weiyang Palace and killed Wang Mang, ending the Xin dynasty. This violent end to Wang Mang's regime paved the way for the restoration of the Han dynasty.
Eastern Han Dynasty Begins
Liu Xiu became Emperor Guangwu, formally beginning the Eastern Han dynasty. He established Luoyang as the new capital, marking the restoration of Han rule after the Xin interregnum.
Red Eyebrows Surrender
Emperor Guangwu's officers Deng Yu and Feng Yi forced the Red Eyebrows rebel group to surrender and executed their leaders for treason. This victory eliminated a major threat to the restored Han dynasty.
Han Reaffirms Control Over Korean Commanderies
After the widespread rebellion against Wang Mang allowed Goguryeo to raid Han's Korean commanderies, the Han dynasty reaffirmed its control over the region, restoring imperial authority on the Korean peninsula.
China Reunified Under Han
Emperor Guangwu completed his campaigns against regional warlords who had claimed the title of emperor, successfully reunifying China under Han rule. This ended the period of fragmentation following Wang Mang's fall.
40 CE - 61 CE
Trưng Sisters Rebellion in Vietnam
The Trưng Sisters led a rebellion against Han rule in Vietnam, challenging imperial authority in the southern territories. This uprising demonstrated the difficulties of maintaining control over distant provinces.
Trưng Sisters Rebellion Crushed
Han general Ma Yuan crushed the Trưng Sisters rebellion in a campaign lasting from 42 to 43 AD, restoring Han control over Vietnam. This victory secured the southern borders of the empire.
Xiongnu Split into Northern and Southern Factions
The Xiongnu confederation split when Bi submitted to Han as a tributary vassal while his cousin Punu remained hostile. This created two rival Xiongnu states, with the Southern Xiongnu allied to Han and the Northern Xiongnu remaining enemies.
Bronze seal of a Xiongnu chieftain
Seal conferred by the Eastern Han government to Xiongnu leaders who submitted to Han authority
62 CE - 83 CE
Northern Xiongnu Conquer Tarim Basin
The Northern Xiongnu conquered the Tarim Basin, using it as a base to invade the Hexi Corridor. This loss of control over the Silk Road trade routes posed a significant threat to Han economic and strategic interests.
Buddhism First Mentioned in Chinese Records
Buddhism was first mentioned in Chinese historical records, marking the beginning of Buddhist influence in China. Liu Ying, half-brother to Emperor Ming, was among its earliest Chinese adherents, though it was initially associated with Huang-Lao Taoism.
Office for Price Adjustment Abolished
Emperor Ming's short-lived Office for Price Adjustment and Stabilization was abolished, ending central government price control regulations. This marked a shift toward less direct government intervention in markets during the Eastern Han.
Yellow River Southern Branch Dammed
Han engineers successfully dammed the southern branch of the Yellow River that had formed during the floods of Wang Mang's reign. This engineering achievement helped restore flood control and agricultural productivity.
Battle of Yiwulu - Northern Xiongnu Defeated
Dou Gu defeated the Northern Xiongnu at the Battle of Yiwulu, evicting them from Turpan and chasing them as far as Lake Barkol. A garrison was established at Hami to secure Han control over the region.
84 CE - 105 CE
Battle of Ikh Bayan - Northern Xiongnu Retreat
Dou Xian defeated the Northern Xiongnu chanyu at the Battle of Ikh Bayan, forcing them to retreat into the Altai Mountains. This victory further weakened Northern Xiongnu power and influence.
Kushan Marriage Alliance Rejected
The Han court rejected a marriage alliance request from Kushan ruler Vima Kadphises, leading to a brief conflict when Kushan forces attacked Ban Chao in Wakhan. The Kushans withdrew due to lack of supplies.
Northern Xiongnu Flee to Ili River Valley
The Northern Xiongnu fled into the Ili River valley, allowing the nomadic Xianbei to occupy the area from Manchuria to the Ili River. This marked the effective end of Northern Xiongnu power in the region.
Protector General Office Reinstated
The office of Protector General of the Western Regions was reinstated and bestowed on Ban Chao, formalizing Han control over the Silk Road trade routes and Central Asian territories.
Eunuch Intervention in Court Politics Begins
With the aid of eunuch Zheng Zhong, Emperor He had Empress Dowager Dou put under house arrest and her clan stripped of power. This marked the beginning of significant eunuch involvement in Eastern Han court politics.
Unsuccessful Mission to Rome
Emperor He initiated an unsuccessful diplomatic mission to Rome with Gan Ying as emissary. Though the mission failed to reach Rome, it demonstrated Han interest in establishing contact with the distant Roman Empire.
Cai Lun Invents Modern Papermaking
Cai Lun invented the standard papermaking process, revolutionizing writing materials and information storage. This innovation would have profound impacts on education, administration, and cultural transmission throughout Chinese history.
106 CE - 127 CE
Qiang Rebellion and Financial Crisis
A widespread Qiang rebellion lasted from 107 to 118 AD, coinciding with a turbulent financial crisis. Empress Deng Sui managed state affairs as regent during this challenging period for the Eastern Han dynasty.
Qiang Rebellion Ends
The Qiang rebellion that had lasted over a decade finally ended, allowing the Eastern Han government to restore stability to the western regions and focus on other administrative challenges.
150 CE - 171 CE
Roman Embassy Reaches Han Court
A Roman embassy, possibly merchants rather than official diplomats, reached the court of Emperor Huan. This represented the furthest extent of direct contact between the Roman and Han empires along the Silk Road.
Partisan Prohibitions Begin
Emperor Huan permanently barred Li Ying and his associates from serving in office after their imprisonment on dubious treason charges, marking the beginning of the Partisan Prohibitions that would plague the late Eastern Han.
172 CE - 193 CE
Yellow Turban and Five Pecks of Rice Rebellions
Large-scale Taoist religious rebellions led by Zhang Jue and Zhang Lu erupted across the empire. The Yellow Turban Rebellion spread across eight provinces while the Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion occurred in northern Sichuan and southern Shaanxi.
He Jin Assassinated by Eunuchs
General-in-chief He Jin was assassinated by eunuchs after plotting with Yuan Shao to overthrow them. His death triggered a violent confrontation that would lead to the massacre of court eunuchs and the collapse of central authority.
Massacre of Palace Eunuchs
Yuan Shao and Yuan Shu besieged both palaces in Luoyang, leading to the massacre of approximately two thousand eunuchs. This violent purge effectively ended eunuch power but also destroyed the remaining imperial authority.
Dong Zhuo Burns Luoyang
General Dong Zhuo burned Luoyang to the ground and resettled the court at Chang'an, demonstrating the complete breakdown of imperial authority. This destruction of the capital symbolized the end of effective Han rule.
Dong Zhuo Assassinated
Dong Zhuo was killed by his adopted son Lü Bu in a plot hatched by Wang Yun. This assassination removed a major warlord but did not restore imperial authority, as other military leaders continued to compete for power.
194 CE - 215 CE
Capital Moved to Xuchang
Emperor Xian was persuaded by Cao Cao to move the capital to Xuchang, effectively placing the emperor under Cao Cao's control. This marked Cao Cao's emergence as the dominant power behind the throne.
Battle of Guandu
Cao Cao defeated Yuan Shao at the Battle of Guandu, greatly diminishing Yuan's power and establishing Cao Cao as the dominant warlord in northern China. This victory was crucial in Cao Cao's rise to supreme power.
Battle of Red Cliffs
Cao Cao suffered a major naval defeat at the Battle of Red Cliffs, preventing his unification of China and leading to the division of the empire into three spheres of influence controlled by Cao Cao, Sun Quan, and Liu Bei.
Zhang Lu's Rebellion Ends
Zhang Lu's Five Pecks of Rice rebellion in northern Sichuan and southern Shaanxi was finally quelled after lasting over three decades. This ended one of the last major religious rebellions against Han authority.
216 CE - 220 CE
Cao Cao Dies
Cao Cao, the dominant warlord who had controlled the Han emperor for decades, died. His death set the stage for his son Cao Pi to formally end the Han dynasty and establish the Wei dynasty.
End of Han Dynasty
Cao Pi forced Emperor Xian to relinquish the throne and became Emperor Wen of Wei, formally ending the Han dynasty. This marked the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period and the end of over 400 years of Han rule.
Provinces and commanderies in 219 AD
Map showing the administrative divisions in the penultimate year of the Han dynasty
