A model of the spinning jenny in a museum in Wuppertal
The spinning jenny represents one of the key innovations that started the Industrial Revolution, symbolizing the transition from hand production to mechanized manufacturing
Industrial Revolution
A comprehensive timeline of the Industrial Revolution from 1700-1930, covering technological innovations, social changes, and global spread of industrialization from Britain to Europe, America, and beyond.
1698 CE - 1709 CE
Thomas Savery patents steam pump
Thomas Savery patented the first commercially successful industrial use of steam power in 1698. His low-lift combined vacuum and pressure water pump generated about one horsepower and was used in waterworks and mines, marking the beginning of steam power applications.
Jethro Tull's mechanical seed drill developed
Jethro Tull's mechanical seed drill was developed in the early 18th century (around 1701), ensuring more even sowing and depth control. This agricultural innovation was part of the British Agricultural Revolution that supported industrial development by increasing food production efficiency.
John Harris publishes Lexicon Technicum
John Harris published the Lexicon Technicum, offering extensive scientific and engineering entries. This technical encyclopedia helped disseminate industrial methods and knowledge, contributing to the spread of technological innovation during the early Industrial Revolution.
Abraham Darby uses coke in blast furnaces
Abraham Darby made progress using coke to fuel his blast furnaces at Coalbrookdale. This innovation began the transition from charcoal to coke in iron production, though the coke pig iron was initially only suitable for cast iron goods rather than wrought iron.
1710 CE - 1721 CE
Thomas Newcomen introduces steam engine
Thomas Newcomen introduced the first successful piston steam engine before 1712. These engines were installed for draining deep mines and represented the first practical application of steam power, though they were extremely inefficient by modern standards.
Newcomen's steam-powered atmospheric engine
Newcomen's steam-powered atmospheric engine was the first practical piston steam engine; subsequent steam engines were to power the Industrial Revolution.
John Lombe's silk mill becomes operational
John Lombe's water-powered silk mill at Derby became operational, arguably the first highly mechanised factory. Lombe had learned silk thread manufacturing by acting as an industrial spy in Italy, representing early technology transfer and industrial espionage.
John Lombe's silk mill site today in Derby
John Lombe's silk mill site today in Derby, rebuilt as Derby Silk Mill
1722 CE - 1733 CE
Joseph Foljambe develops iron Rotherham plough
Joseph Foljambe developed the iron Rotherham plough around 1730. This agricultural innovation was part of the British Agricultural Revolution that increased crop yields and released labor for industrial employment, supporting the broader Industrial Revolution.
John Kay patents the flying shuttle
John Kay patented the flying shuttle in 1733, which doubled the output of a weaver. This innovation worsened the imbalance between spinning and weaving, creating pressure for further technological developments in textile production.
1734 CE - 1745 CE
Benjamin Huntsman develops crucible steel technique
Benjamin Huntsman developed his crucible steel technique in the 1740s. This improvement in steel production was crucial as steel was an expensive commodity used only where iron would not suffice, such as for cutting edge tools and springs.
Factory opens in Northampton with Paul and Wyatt's machines
A factory opened in Northampton with 50 spindles on each of five of Paul and Wyatt's machines. Lewis Paul had patented the roller spinning frame and flyer-and-bobbin system, representing early mechanization of textile production.
1746 CE - 1757 CE
Paul and Bourn patent carding machines
Paul and Bourn patented carding machines in 1748. Based on two sets of rollers that travelled at different speeds, this technology was later used in the first cotton spinning mill, advancing textile mechanization.
John Wilkinson patents hydraulic powered blowing engine
Ironmaster John Wilkinson patented a hydraulic powered blowing engine for blast furnaces in 1757. This innovation improved the efficiency of iron production by providing better blast power for furnaces.
1758 CE - 1769 CE
Industrial Revolution begins in Great Britain
The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain around 1760, marking the start of a transitional period toward more widespread, efficient manufacturing processes. This transformation included the shift from hand production to machines and the rise of the mechanized factory system.
Cast iron blowing cylinder first used
The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760, improving blast furnace operations. This innovation allowed for higher blast furnace temperatures and increased iron production efficiency.
Hamleys toy store opens in London
Hamleys, the oldest toy store, opened in London in 1760. This represents the growth of consumer retail businesses during the Industrial Revolution, as rising prosperity created new markets for consumer goods.
Bridgewater Canal opens
The Bridgewater Canal in North West England opened in 1761, proving hugely commercially successful. From Worsley to Manchester, it cost £168,000 but reduced coal prices in Manchester by half within one year, inspiring Canal Mania across Britain.
The Bridgewater Canal
The Bridgewater Canal, which proved very commercially successful, crossed the Manchester Ship Canal, one of the last canals to be built.
James Hargreaves invents the spinning jenny
James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny in Oswaldtwistle, Lancashire in 1764. It was the first practical spinning frame with multiple spindles, revolutionizing textile production by allowing one worker to spin multiple threads simultaneously.
A model of the spinning jenny in a museum in Wuppertal
Invented by James Hargreaves in 1764, the spinning jenny was one of the innovations that started the revolution.
Cast iron blowing cylinder used at Carrington
The first blowing cylinder made of cast iron is believed to be the one used at Carrington in 1768, designed by John Smeaton. This advancement improved blast furnace efficiency and iron production capacity.
Richard Arkwright patents the water frame
Richard Arkwright patented the water frame in 1769, which could produce hard, medium-count thread suitable for warp. This finally allowed 100% cotton cloth to be made in Britain, revolutionizing textile production.
1770 CE - 1781 CE
Arkwright establishes water-powered factory at Cromford
Richard Arkwright used water power at a factory in Cromford, Derbyshire in 1771, giving the water frame its name. This represented the establishment of the factory system and mechanized production methods.
John Wilkinson invents cylinder boring machine
John Wilkinson invented a machine for boring cylinders in 1774. This was the first large precision machine tool and was crucial for manufacturing steam engine cylinders, enabling the development of more efficient steam engines.
Leeds and Liverpool Canal opens
The Leeds and Liverpool Canal opened in 1774, becoming one of the most notable canals built during Canal Mania. This canal connected major industrial centers and facilitated the transport of raw materials and finished goods.
Wilkinson bores first successful cylinder for Watt engine
John Wilkinson bored the first successful cylinder for a Boulton and Watt steam engine in 1776, leading to an exclusive contract for providing cylinders. This precision manufacturing was crucial for steam engine development.
Iron Bridge opens in Shropshire
The Iron Bridge opened in 1778, built with cast iron produced by Abraham Darby III. This was the world's first bridge constructed of iron and demonstrated the structural potential of cast iron as a building material.
The Iron Bridge in Shropshire, England
The Iron Bridge in Shropshire, England, the world's first bridge constructed of iron, opened in 1781.
James Watt perfects his steam engine
James Watt, with financial support from Matthew Boulton, perfected his steam engine by 1778. The engine incorporated radical improvements including a separate steam condenser chamber, increasing efficiency dramatically and using only 20-25% as much coal as Newcomen's engines.
A Watt steam engine
A Watt steam engine, invented by James Watt, who transformed the steam engine from a reciprocating motion that was used for pumping to a rotating motion suited to industrial applications
Samuel Crompton invents the spinning mule
Samuel Crompton invented the spinning mule in 1779, a hybrid of Arkwright's water frame and Hargreaves's spinning jenny. The mule could produce finer thread than hand spinning at lower cost and was suitable for use as warp, allowing Britain to produce highly competitive yarn.
The only surviving example of a spinning mule built by Samuel Crompton
The only surviving example of a spinning mule built by the inventor Samuel Crompton, the mule produced high-quality thread with minimal labour, now on display at Bolton Museum in Greater Manchester
Iron Bridge officially opens
The Iron Bridge in Shropshire officially opened in 1781, becoming the world's first bridge constructed entirely of iron. This landmark engineering achievement demonstrated the structural capabilities of cast iron and influenced future construction methods.
1782 CE - 1793 CE
Watt develops rotary steam engine
James Watt developed a rotary steam engine in 1782, which could directly drive factory machinery. This innovation made steam power widely applicable to industrial processes including blowing, hammering, rolling and slitting operations.
Henry Cort develops rolling process
Henry Cort developed the rolling process in 1783, which was fifteen times faster than hammering wrought iron. This innovation significantly improved the efficiency of iron production and processing.
Watt steam engine becomes double-acting rotative type
The Watt steam engine was fully developed into a double-acting rotative type in 1783, meaning it could directly drive rotary machinery in factories and mills. This advancement made steam power practical for widespread industrial use.
Henry Cort develops puddling process
Henry Cort developed the puddling process in 1784, which produced structural grade iron at relatively low cost. This process became widely used after 1800 and was crucial for producing high-quality wrought iron, though it was backbreaking work.
Andrew Meikle invents threshing machine
Andrew Meikle invented the threshing machine in 1784, which reduced manual labor requirements in agriculture. Hand threshing had taken about one-quarter of agricultural labor, so this innovation freed up workers for industrial employment.
Edmund Cartwright patents power loom
Edmund Cartwright developed and patented a vertical power loom in 1785. Realizing that the expiration of Arkwright's patent would increase cotton supply and create a weaver shortage, Cartwright's invention mechanized weaving to match spinning capacity.
Oliver Evans invents automated flour mill
Oliver Evans invented an automated flour mill in the mid-1780s that used control mechanisms and conveyors requiring no labor from grain loading to flour discharge. This is considered the first modern materials handling system and an important advance toward mass production.
Beverly Cotton Manufactory founded
Thomas Somers and the Cabot Brothers founded the Beverly Cotton Manufactory in 1787, the first cotton mill in America and the largest of its era. Though initially designed for horsepower, it served as a playground of innovation for cotton processing.
Thames and Severn Canal opens
The Thames and Severn Canal opened in 1789, connecting major waterways and facilitating trade and transport. This canal was part of the broader canal building boom that transformed Britain's transportation infrastructure during the Industrial Revolution.
Nicolas Leblanc introduces soda ash production method
Nicolas Leblanc succeeded in introducing a method for large-scale production of sodium carbonate (soda ash) in 1791. The Leblanc process enabled mass production of this important chemical used in glass, textile, soap, and paper industries.
Prague hosts first World's Fair
Prague hosted the first World's Fair in 1791 in Clementinum, showcasing the region's growing industrial sophistication. This exhibition celebrated advanced manufacturing techniques in the Czech lands and demonstrated the spread of industrialization beyond Britain.
Eli Whitney invents cotton gin
Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin in 1792, which could remove seed from cotton 50 times faster than by hand. This invention made upland cotton profitable and led to the massive expansion of slave plantations in the American South.
Samuel Slater founds Slater Mill
Samuel Slater founded Slater Mill at Pawtucket, Rhode Island in 1793. Having learned textile technologies as an apprentice in England, Slater defied laws against skilled worker emigration and established one of America's first successful textile mills.
Slater's Mill in Pawtucket, Rhode Island
Slater's Mill in Pawtucket, Rhode Island
1794 CE - 1805 CE
Boulton and Watt open Soho Foundry
Boulton and Watt opened the Soho Foundry for the manufacture of steam engines in 1795. This facility became a major center for steam engine production and helped spread steam technology throughout Britain and beyond.
Harding, Howell & Co. opens first department store
Harding, Howell & Co. opened one of the first department stores in 1796 on Pall Mall, London. This represented the evolution of retail during the Industrial Revolution as rising prosperity created demand for diverse consumer goods in centralized locations.
Louis-Nicolas Robert patents paper machine
Louis-Nicolas Robert patented a machine for making continuous sheet paper on a loop of wire fabric in France in 1798. This innovation, later known as the Fourdrinier machine, revolutionized paper production and influenced other continuous production processes.
First use of 'Industrial Revolution' term
The earliest recorded use of 'Industrial Revolution' was in 1799 by French envoy Louis-Guillaume Otto, announcing that France had entered the race to industrialize. This marked the recognition of the transformative economic changes occurring across Europe.
Charles Tennant develops bleaching powder
Chemist Charles Tennant developed bleaching powder (calcium hypochlorite) in 1800, based on Claude Louis Berthollet's discoveries. This revolutionized textile bleaching by reducing the time required from repeated sun exposure to a chemical process.
Boulton and Watt patent expires
The Boulton and Watt patent expired around 1800, allowing other inventors like Richard Trevithick and Oliver Evans to develop higher-pressure steam engines. This led to more compact engines suitable for mobile applications like locomotives and steamboats.
First mechanical loom introduced in Czech lands
The first mechanical loom in the Czech lands was introduced in Varnsdorf in 1801, followed shortly by steam engines in Bohemia and Moravia. This marked the beginning of industrialization in the Habsburg realms, with the Czech lands becoming the industrial hub.
Abraham Rees publishes The Cyclopaedia
Abraham Rees published The Cyclopaedia; or, Universal Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Literature between 1802-19. This technical encyclopedia contained detailed articles and engraved plates on machines and processes, helping disseminate industrial knowledge.
1806 CE - 1817 CE
Cotton strain brought from Mexico to Natchez
A strain of cotton seed was brought from Mexico to Natchez, Mississippi in 1806, becoming the parent genetic material for 90% of world cotton production. This variety produced bolls three to four times faster to pick, revolutionizing cotton agriculture.
Daniel Day establishes wool carding mill
Daniel Day established a wool carding mill in the Blackstone Valley at Uxbridge, Massachusetts in 1809, the third woollen mill established in the US. This contributed to the development of America's textile industry in the Blackstone Valley region.
Luddite movement begins
The Luddite movement began in 1811 with attacks on textile machinery near Nottingham. Unemployed workers, unable to compete with machines, began destroying factories and equipment. The movement spread rapidly before being suppressed by military force.
Engraving of Ned Ludd, Leader of the Luddites, 1812
Engraving of Ned Ludd, Leader of the Luddites, 1812
Gas lighting utilities established in London
The first gas lighting utilities were established in London between 1812 and 1820. Gas lighting allowed factories and stores to remain open longer and enabled nightlife to flourish in cities, fundamentally changing social and industrial organization.
Samuel Horrocks patents improved loom
Samuel Horrocks patented an improved loom in 1813, which was later enhanced by Richard Roberts in 1822. These looms were produced in large numbers by Roberts, Hill & Co., advancing textile manufacturing efficiency.
Corn Laws enacted in Britain
The Corn Laws were enacted in Britain from 1815-46, imposing tariffs on imported grain to keep prices high for domestic producers. These laws adversely affected food supply and were eventually repealed during the Great Irish Famine.
Safety lamp invented
The safety lamp was invented in 1816 by Sir Humphry Davy, and independently by George Stephenson. This provided some protection against firedamp explosions in coal mines, though the lamps proved problematic and mining remained dangerous.
First macadam road built in Bristol
The first 'macadam' stretch of road was built as Marsh Road at Ashton Gate, Bristol in 1816. This new road construction method, developed by John McAdam, provided better, more durable roads for transportation.
Francis Cabot Lowell dies
Merchant Francis Cabot Lowell died in 1817 after establishing the Boston Manufacturing Company and America's second cotton-to-cloth textile mill at Waltham, Massachusetts. His associates later built America's first planned factory town named after him.
1818 CE - 1829 CE
Middletown milling machine developed
The Middletown milling machine was developed around 1818 by Robert Johnson and Simeon North. This advancement in machine tools improved precision manufacturing capabilities and contributed to the development of interchangeable parts production.
The Middletown milling machine
The Middletown milling machine, developed around 1818 by Robert Johnson and Simeon North
Richard Roberts improves loom design
Richard Roberts improved Samuel Horrocks' loom design in 1822. Roberts was a maker of high-quality machine tools and pioneer in the use of jigs and gauges for precision workshop measurement, advancing manufacturing precision.
First macadam road in US completed
The first macadam road in the U.S., the 'Boonsborough Turnpike Road' between Hagerstown and Boonsboro, Maryland, was completed in 1823. This represented the adoption of British road-building technology in America.
Construction of the first macadam road in the U.S. in 1823
Construction of the first macadam road in the U.S. in 1823. In the foreground, workers are breaking stones "so as not to exceed 6 ounces in weight or to pass a two-inch ring".
Joseph Aspdin patents portland cement
Joseph Aspdin, a British bricklayer turned builder, patented a chemical process for making portland cement in 1824. This important advance in building trades involved sintering clay and limestone, then grinding it into powder for concrete production.
Combination Act repealed
The Combination Act of 1799, which forbade workers from forming trade unions, was repealed in 1824. This allowed workers to organize, though unions remained severely restricted and were viewed with suspicion by authorities and employers.
Stockton and Darlington Railway opens
Steam-hauled public railways began with the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825. This marked the beginning of the railway age and demonstrated the practical application of steam locomotives for public transportation.
Hot blast development
Hot blast was developed in 1828, dramatically reducing fuel consumption in iron production. The 1828 development of hot blast, combined with other innovations, enabled the rapid expansion of railways by improving iron production capacity and efficiency.
James Beaumont Neilson patents hot blast
Scottish inventor James Beaumont Neilson patented hot blast in 1828, the most important 19th-century development for saving energy in pig iron production. It reduced fuel requirements by one-third using coke or two-thirds using coal.
Rainhill Trials demonstrate locomotive success
The Rainhill Trials in 1829 demonstrated Robert Stephenson's successful locomotive design. These trials proved the viability of steam locomotives and led to the rapid introduction of railways across Britain and beyond.
1830 CE - 1841 CE
Belgium becomes independent
Belgium became independent in 1830, and especially after independence, factories comprising coke blast furnaces as well as puddling and rolling mills were built in coal mining areas around Liège and Charleroi, making Belgium the second country to industrialize.
Captain Swing disturbances affect southern Britain
The Captain Swing disturbances affected large parts of southern Britain in the 1830s as agricultural laborers protested industrialization. Threshing machines were particular targets, and hayrick burning was common, leading to the formation of trade unions.
Penny dreadfuls created
Penny dreadfuls were created in the 1830s to meet demand for cheap literature for the masses. These publications were 'Britain's first taste of mass-produced popular culture for the young' and 'the Victorian equivalent of video games.'
Major railway construction begins
Construction of major railways connecting larger cities and towns began in the 1830s, though it only gained momentum at the very end of the first Industrial Revolution. This marked the beginning of the railway boom that would transform transportation.
Liverpool and Manchester Railway opens
The Liverpool and Manchester Railway opened on September 15, 1830, becoming the first inter-city railway in the world. Engineered by Joseph Locke and George Stephenson, it linked Manchester with Liverpool and became highly successful, sparking Railway Mania.
A portrait depicting the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1830
A portrait depicting the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1830, the first inter-city railway in the world and which spawned Railway Mania due to its success
Chance Brothers use cylinder process for sheet glass
In 1832, the Chance Brothers used the cylinder process to create sheet glass, becoming leading producers of window and plate glass. This advancement allowed larger panes without interruption, revolutionizing architecture and interior design.
Reform Act extends voting rights
The Reform Act of 1832 extended voting rights in Britain, though it did not grant universal suffrage. This political reform was part of broader social changes accompanying industrialization, though working-class representation remained limited.
First Factory Acts passed
The first general laws against child labor, the Factory Acts, were passed in Britain in 1833. Children younger than nine were prohibited from working, night work was banned for children, and working hours for those under 18 were limited to 12 hours.
Tolpuddle Martyrs transported to Australia
Six men from Tolpuddle in Dorset, who founded the Friendly Society of Agricultural Labourers, were arrested, found guilty, and transported to Australia in 1834. They became known as the Tolpuddle Martyrs and symbolized early labor organization struggles.
Charles Dickens publishes The Pickwick Papers
Charles Dickens published The Pickwick Papers in 1836, which became a phenomenon and sparked spin-offs and merchandise. Dickens used innovations of the era including new printing presses, enhanced advertising, and railways to sell books, defining modern entertainment.
Jérôme-Adolphe Blanqui describes Industrial Revolution
Jérôme-Adolphe Blanqui provided a description of the Industrial Revolution in 1837, helping to popularize the term. His work contributed to the growing recognition and understanding of the economic transformation occurring across Europe.
Industrial Revolution spreads to continental Europe and US
By about 1840, the Industrial Revolution had spread from Great Britain to continental Europe and the United States. This marked the global expansion of industrialization beyond its British origins, transforming economies worldwide.
Uniform Penny Post introduced
The Uniform Penny Post was introduced in 1840 with the invention of the postage stamp (Penny Black), charging one penny for carriage between any two places in the UK. This revolutionized communication and enabled mail order business development.
Electrical telegraph widely introduced
The electrical telegraph was widely introduced in the 1840s in the UK and US. While this new technology improved communication, it was not sufficient alone to drive high rates of economic growth during this period.
1842 CE - 1853 CE
General strike organized through Chartist movement
In 1842, a general strike involving cotton workers and colliers was organized through the Chartist movement, stopping production across Britain. This demonstrated the growing power of organized labor and working-class political movements.
Laws improve mine working conditions
Laws passed in 1842 and 1844 improved mine working conditions in Britain. The employment of children and women in mining was forbidden, and other safety measures were implemented to address the dangerous conditions in coal mines.
Thames Tunnel opens
The Thames Tunnel opened in 1843, becoming the world's first underwater tunnel. English engineer Marc Isambard Brunel used portland cement concrete in its construction, demonstrating new engineering capabilities and construction materials.
The Thames Tunnel, which opened in 1843
The Thames Tunnel, which opened in 1843; portland cement concrete was used in the world's first underwater tunnel.
Friedrich Engels publishes working class conditions
Friedrich Engels published 'The Condition of the Working Class in England' in 1844, describing the poor living conditions in industrial cities. This influential work exposed the harsh realities of industrial life and contributed to socialist thought.
Additional Factory Act passed
An additional Factory Act was passed in 1844, further restricting child labor and improving working conditions. These laws built upon the 1833 Factory Act to provide better protection for young workers in industrial settings.
R. White's Lemonade begins operations
R. White's Lemonade, a soft drinks company, began in 1845 by selling drinks in London from a wheelbarrow. This represents the growth of new consumer industries and street commerce during the Industrial Revolution.
Fry's produces first chocolate bar
Fry's of Bristol produced the first chocolate bar in 1847. This innovation in confectionery represented the transformation of luxury goods into mass-produced items affordable to broader segments of the population during industrialization.
Stock company law enacted in Sweden
A stock company law was enacted in Sweden in 1848, representing important institutional changes that supported industrialization. This legal framework facilitated business formation and investment in industrial enterprises.
Music halls develop in urban areas
Music halls developed in the 1850s as urbanization created new communities cut off from cultural roots, requiring new and accessible forms of entertainment. This represented the cultural adaptation to industrial urban life.
Sweden abolishes trade monopolies and joins gold standard
Sweden abolished most tariffs and barriers to free trade in the 1850s and joined the gold standard in 1873. These economic reforms supported Sweden's industrial development and integration into the global economy.
Waltham-Lowell system replaced by immigrant labor
By 1850, especially following the Great Famine of Ireland, the utopia-like Waltham-Lowell system was replaced by poor immigrant labor. This marked a significant change in American industrial labor practices and working conditions.
Great Exhibition held at Crystal Palace
The Great Exhibition was held at the Crystal Palace in 1851, showcasing industrial achievements and innovations. The Crystal Palace itself demonstrated new construction techniques using sheet glass and iron, symbolizing industrial progress.
The Crystal Palace housed the Great Exhibition of 1851
The Crystal Palace housed the Great Exhibition of 1851
1854 CE - 1865 CE
John Snow traces cholera outbreak
In 1854, John Snow traced a cholera outbreak in Soho, London to fecal contamination of a public water well. His finding that cholera could be spread by contaminated water led to fundamental changes in public water and waste system design.
Watch industry industrialization begins
The industrialization of the watch industry started in 1854 in Waltham, Massachusetts, at the Waltham Watch Company. This involved developing machine tools, gauges and assembling methods adapted to the micro precision required for watches.
Metropolitan Board of Works begins London sewer system
The Metropolitan Board of Works, led by chief engineer Joseph Bazalgette, began construction of the modern sewage system in London in 1855. This massive public health project addressed sanitary conditions brought on by industrialization and urbanization.
London sewer system construction begins
The London sewer system began construction in 1859, including 82 miles of main sewers and 1,100 miles of street sewers. This revolutionary system diverted waste to the Thames Estuary and by the 1890s featured biological treatment of sewage.
The London sewer system being built in 1860
The London sewer system being built in 1860 led by the chief engineer Joseph Bazalgette (top right)
Germany takes leadership in chemical industry
After 1860, the focus on chemical innovation shifted to dyestuffs, and Germany took leadership, building a strong chemical industry. Aspiring chemists flocked to German universities to learn the latest techniques, while British scientists lacked research universities.
Fish and chip shops first appear
In the 1860s, fish and chip shops first appeared to satisfy the needs of the growing industrial population. This represents the development of new food industries and urban dining culture during industrialization.
Henry Bessemer invents steel furnace
Henry Bessemer invented a new furnace in the 1860s that could convert molten pig iron into steel in large quantities. This innovation marked the beginning of the Second Industrial Revolution and mass steel production, though it only became widely available in the 1870s.
Pryce Pryce-Jones forms first mail order business
Welsh entrepreneur Pryce Pryce-Jones formed the first mail order business in 1861, selling Welsh flannel through catalogues. Customers could order by mail and goods were delivered via the railway system, revolutionizing retail.
Britain's Alkali Act regulates air pollution
Britain's Alkali Act of 1863 was passed to regulate air pollution from the Leblanc process used to produce soda ash. This was among the first large-scale modern environmental laws, with alkali inspectors appointed to curb pollution.
1866 CE - 1877 CE
Reform Act extends franchise
The Reform Act of 1867 extended the franchise in Britain, allowing trades unions to begin supporting socialist parties after achieving effective political organization. This political reform enabled greater working-class representation.
Austria-Hungary formed
The Habsburg realms became Austria-Hungary in 1867. The empire had grown from 23 million people in 1800 to 36 million by 1870, with industrial development varying across regions but accelerating after this political reorganization.
Cadbury produces heart-shaped chocolate box
Cadbury of Birmingham produced a heart-shaped box of chocolates for Valentine's Day in 1868, becoming the first to commercialize the association between confectionery and romance. This represents the development of modern marketing and consumer culture.
Meiji period begins in Japan
The Industrial Revolution began in Japan around 1870 as Meiji period leaders decided to catch up with the West. The government built railways, improved roads, inaugurated land reform, and established a Western-based education system.
Parliament official emphasizes education importance
A senior government official told Parliament in 1870 that industrial prosperity depended on elementary education provision. This recognition of education's role in industrial competitiveness led to increased investment in public schooling.
Rapid growth resumes after 1870
Rapid economic growth resumed after 1870, driven by new innovations of the Second Industrial Revolution. These included steel-making processes, mass production, assembly lines, electrical grid systems, and large-scale manufacture of machine tools.
Steel becomes widely available
Steel became widely available in the 1870s after the Bessemer process was modified to produce more uniform quality. This marked the true beginning of the steel age and the Second Industrial Revolution's impact on construction and manufacturing.
Iwakura Mission tours Europe and US
In 1871, the Iwakura Mission, a group of Japanese politicians, toured Europe and the US to learn Western ways. This resulted in a deliberate state-led industrialization policy to enable Japan to quickly catch up with Western industrial powers.
German unification stimulates railway growth
German unification in 1871 stimulated consolidation, nationalization into state-owned companies, and further rapid railway growth. Unlike France, the goal was supporting industrialization with heavy lines crisscrossing the Ruhr and connecting major ports.
Sweden joins gold standard
Sweden joined the gold standard in 1873, completing economic reforms that included abolishing trade barriers in the 1850s. This monetary policy supported Sweden's integration into the global economy and industrial development.
Public Health Act requires smoke consumption
The Public Health Act of 1875 required all furnaces and fireplaces to consume their smoke and provided sanctions against factories emitting large amounts of black smoke. This environmental legislation addressed industrial pollution concerns.
1878 CE - 1889 CE
Arnold Toynbee popularizes Industrial Revolution term
Arnold Toynbee's 1881 lectures gave a detailed account of the Industrial Revolution term, and he is credited with its popularization. His academic work helped establish the concept as a recognized historical period and phenomenon.
Bank of Japan founded
The Bank of Japan was founded in 1882, using taxes to fund model steel and textile factories. This state-led approach to industrialization helped Japan rapidly develop modern industry and catch up with Western industrial powers.
Further franchise extension
The franchise was extended again in 1885, allowing trades unions to support socialist parties that eventually merged to become the British Labour Party. This political development gave working people greater representation in government.
1890 CE - 1901 CE
Electricity and electrification revolution begins
By the 1890s, a new revolution began with electricity and electrification in the electrical industries. This marked another phase of the Second Industrial Revolution, transforming power generation and industrial applications.
First giant industrial corporations emerge
By the 1890s, industrialization had created the first giant industrial corporations with global interests. Companies like U.S. Steel, General Electric, Standard Oil and Bayer AG joined railroad and ship companies on world stock markets.
Manchester Ship Canal opens
The Manchester Ship Canal opened in 1894, becoming the world's largest ship canal and opening Manchester as a port. However, it never achieved commercial success and signaled canals as a dying transport mode in the railway age.
Coal Smoke Abatement Society formed
The Coal Smoke Abatement Society was formed in Britain in 1898, founded by artist William Blake Richmond who was frustrated with pollution from coal smoke. This environmental organization worked to address industrial air pollution.
1902 CE - 1913 CE
Growth renewal after 1905
Economic growth renewed after 1905 according to Maurice Lévy-Leboyer's analysis of French industrialization. This marked the end of the economic slowdown period (1860-1905) and the beginning of renewed industrial expansion.
1926 CE - 1930 CE
Industrial development continues to 1930
From 1890 to 1930, new industries developed focusing on domestic markets including mechanical engineering, power utilities, papermaking and textile. This period saw the maturation of industrial economies and diversification of manufacturing.
