Augustus of Prima Porta
Augustus of Prima Porta
Roman Empire
A comprehensive timeline chronicling the Roman Empire from its establishment in 27 BC through the fall of Constantinople in 1453 AD. This timeline covers major political transformations, military conflicts, economic developments, cultural achievements, and the eventual division and collapse of both the Western and Eastern Roman Empires.
200 BCE - 118 BCE
Adoption of Greek Heroic Nudity in Roman Portraiture
As early as the 2nd century BC, Greek heroic nudity was adopted for portraiture of conquering Roman generals, marking a significant shift in Roman artistic conventions and the integration of Greek cultural elements into Roman imperial imagery.
117 BCE - 35 BCE
Rome Controls Most of the Mediterranean
By 100 BC, the city of Rome had expanded its rule from the Italian peninsula to most of the Mediterranean and beyond, establishing itself as a dominant power in the ancient world.
Assassination of Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar, who had become perpetual dictator, was assassinated by a faction that opposed his concentration of power. This event triggered a series of civil wars that would ultimately lead to the end of the Roman Republic.
Battle of Philippi
The faction that assassinated Julius Caesar was driven from Rome and defeated at the Battle of Philippi by Mark Antony and Caesar's adopted son Octavian, consolidating their power over the Roman world.
34 BCE - 48 CE
Battle of Actium
Octavian's forces defeated those of Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium, ending the division of the Roman world and paving the way for Octavian's sole rule.
Census of 28 BC Reveals Large Equestrian Class
The census of 28 BC uncovered large numbers of men who qualified for equestrian status based on property requirements of 400,000 sesterces and three generations of free birth. This census helped formalize the equestrian order in the early Imperial period.
Augustus Becomes First Roman Emperor
The Roman Senate granted Octavian the title Augustus and made him princeps with proconsular imperium, marking his accession as the first Roman emperor and beginning the Principate, the first epoch of Roman imperial history.
Augustus of Prima Porta
Augustus of Prima Porta
Establishment of the Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was formally established, marking the transition from the Roman Republic to imperial rule. This foundational event began a period of centralized authority that would last for centuries.
File:Augustus of Prima Porta (inv. 2290).jpg
Augustus of Prima Porta
Golden Age of Latin Literature Under Augustus
Literature under Augustus, along with that of the Republic, was viewed as the 'Golden Age' of Latin literature, embodying classical ideals. The three most influential Classical Latin poets—Virgil, Horace, and Ovid—belong to this period. Virgil's Aeneid became a national epic, while Ovid's Metamorphoses became a primary source for later classical mythology.
Statue commemorating Ovid's exile
Statue in Constanța, Romania (the ancient colony Tomis), commemorating Ovid's exile
Lex Fufia Caninia Limits Manumission of Slaves
A law (Lex Fufia Caninia) was enacted limiting the number of slaves an owner was allowed to free in his will. This legislation responded to the increasing frequency of manumission in Roman society, attempting to control the rate at which slaves could gain freedom.
Slave holding writing tablets for his master (relief from a 4th-century sarcophagus)
Relief from a 4th-century sarcophagus showing a slave holding writing tablets for his master
Battle of the Teutoburg Forest
Germanic tribes wiped out three Roman legions in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, a catastrophic defeat that led Augustus to increase the number of legions from 25 to around 30. This battle marked a significant setback in Roman expansion into Germania and established the Rhine as a long-term frontier.
Beginning of Pax Romana under Augustus
The 200-year period known as the Pax Romana (Roman Peace) begins with Augustus's rule, marking an era of unprecedented social stability and economic prosperity throughout the Roman Empire. This period established principles of dynastic succession and saw the cohesion of the empire strengthened.
Augustus of Prima Porta
Augustus of Prima Porta
Augustus' Urban Renewal Programme in Rome
Augustus undertook a vast building programme in Rome, reorganizing the city into neighbourhoods (vici) with local police and firefighting services. He created monumental architecture including the Campus Martius with the Altar of Augustan Peace and an Egyptian obelisk used as a horologium pointer. Rome's population grew to as many as one million people during this period.
Augustus of Prima Porta
Augustus of Prima Porta
Public Entertainment Expansion Under Augustus
Under Augustus, public entertainments were presented on 77 days of the year, including circus games, chariot races, gladiator combat, and theatrical events. This established the pattern of state-sponsored entertainment that would characterize Roman urban life.
Credit Crisis in the Roman Empire
A serious credit shortage occurred in the early Roman Empire, representing the only known major financial crisis of this period. This event demonstrated the vulnerability of the Roman financial system despite generally having available capital that exceeded borrower needs.
49 CE - 131 CE
Silver Age of Latin Literature
The mid-1st through mid-2nd century was conventionally called the 'Silver Age' of Latin literature. Leading writers included Seneca, Lucan, Petronius, Martial, Statius, Pliny the Elder and Younger, and the historian Tacitus. This period saw diverse literary achievements despite political pressures.
Year of the Four Emperors
The Julio-Claudian dynasty ended in 69 AD with the strife-torn Year of the Four Emperors, a period of civil war from which Vespasian emerged as victor and founder of the Flavian dynasty.
Year of the Four Emperors
The Julio-Claudian dynasty ends after Nero, yielding to a period of civil strife known as the Year of the Four Emperors. Vespasian emerges victorious from this conflict and establishes the brief Flavian dynasty.
Opening of the Colosseum with 100 Days of Games
Emperor Titus marked the opening of the Flavian Amphitheatre (Colosseum) with an unprecedented 100 days of arena events, featuring 3,000 gladiators competing on a single day. This massive spectacle demonstrated the scale and importance of public entertainment in Roman society and established the Colosseum as the regular arena for blood sports in Rome.
The Flavian Amphitheatre, more commonly known as the Colosseum
The Flavian Amphitheatre, more commonly known as the Colosseum
Opening of the Colosseum
Emperor Titus marked the opening of the Flavian Amphitheatre (Colosseum) with an unprecedented 100 days of arena events, featuring 3,000 gladiators competing on a single day. The Colosseum became the regular arena for blood sports in Rome and symbolized Roman imperial power and entertainment culture.
The Flavian Amphitheatre, more commonly known as the Colosseum
The Flavian Amphitheatre, more commonly known as the Colosseum
Second Sophistic Cultural Movement
The cultural movement known as the Second Sophistic (1st-3rd century AD) promoted the assimilation of Greek and Roman social, educational, and aesthetic values. This movement significantly influenced education, literature, and cultural identity throughout the Empire.
Roman Empire Reaches Maximum Territorial Extent
Under Emperor Trajan, the Roman Empire reaches its largest expanse, encompassing 5 million square kilometers. The empire at this time accounted for between one-sixth and one-fourth of the world's total population, making it the most populous unified political entity in the West until the mid-19th century.
Relief panel from Trajan's Column
Relief panel from Trajan's Column in Rome, showing the building of a fort and the reception of a Dacian embassy
Reign of Emperor Hadrian
Hadrian ruled the Roman Empire from 117 to 138 AD, a period during which the Roman legions were strategically deployed throughout the empire. His reign is noted for consolidating Roman frontiers and establishing defensive boundaries, including the famous Hadrian's Wall in Britain.
The Roman Empire under Hadrian (ruled 117–138) showing the location of the Roman legions deployed in 125 AD
Map showing the Roman Empire under Hadrian with legion deployments in 125 AD
Hadrian Refounds Jerusalem as Aelia Capitolina
Emperor Hadrian visited Judaea and refounded Jerusalem as the Roman colony Aelia Capitolina, overlaying the destroyed Jewish city with a new Roman urban plan and constructing a Temple to Jupiter on the site of the former Jewish Temple. This marked a decisive turning point in Jewish-Roman relations.
Hadrian Refounds Jerusalem as Aelia Capitolina
Emperor Hadrian visits Judaea and refounds Jerusalem as the Roman colony Aelia Capitolina, naming it after his family (Aelius) and the Capitoline Triad. The refoundation overlays the destroyed Jewish city with a new Roman urban plan and includes construction of a Temple to Jupiter on the site of the former Jewish Temple, marking a decisive turning point in Jewish-Roman relations.
Hadrian's Wall
A segment of the ruins of Hadrian's Wall in northern England, overlooking Crag Lough
Roman Empire under Hadrian
The Roman Empire under Hadrian (ruled 117–138) showing the location of the Roman legions deployed in 125 AD
132 CE - 214 CE
Bar Kokhba Revolt
Hadrian's refoundation of Jerusalem and restrictions on Jewish practices sparked the Bar Kokhba Revolt. After crushing the uprising, Roman forces expelled most Jews from Jerusalem, barring their entry except on certain days, and rebuilt the city as a statement of imperial power.
Bar Kokhba Revolt
A major Jewish uprising against Roman rule sparked by Hadrian's refounding of Jerusalem and restrictions on Jewish practices. After crushing the revolt, Roman forces expelled most Jews from Jerusalem, barring their entry except on certain days, and rebuilt the city as a statement of imperial power and domination.
Reign of Antoninus Pius
Antoninus Pius served as Roman Emperor, representing the height of the Antonine dynasty. During this period, the Senate maintained significant influence in policy discussions, though equestrians were playing an increasingly important role in the emperor's council (consilium).
Antoninus Pius wearing a toga (Hermitage Museum)
Statue of Emperor Antoninus Pius in traditional Roman toga
Currency Debasement under Antonine and Severan Dynasties
Emperors of the Antonine and Severan dynasties began debasing the currency, particularly the denarius, under pressure to meet military payrolls. This marked the beginning of monetary instability that would plague the later Empire.
Sestertius issued under Hadrian circa AD 134–138
Sestertius issued under Hadrian circa AD 134–138
Peak and Decline of Roman Mining Operations
Intensive large-scale mining of alluvial deposits through open-cast and underground mining took place from the reign of Augustus up to the early 3rd century. Around the mid-2nd century, Roman metal production reached its peak with iron output estimated at 82,500 tonnes annually and silver stock at 10,000 tonnes. The instability of the Empire in the early 3rd century disrupted production, ending this period of proto-industrial scale extraction.
Las Médulas mining landscape
Landscape resulting from the mining technique at Las Médulas, Spain, one of the most important gold mines in the Roman Empire
Galen's Medical Writings on Nutrition and Health
The physician Galen wrote extensively on the importance of good diet to health, influencing Roman medical understanding. His views on nutrition were shaped by humoral theory and became foundational to Roman medical practice.
Expansion of Entertainment Days Under Marcus Aurelius
By the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD), public entertainments had expanded to 135 days per year, nearly doubling from the 77 days under Augustus. This expansion reflected the growing importance of spectacles in Roman society and imperial politics.
Expansion of Public Entertainment Days under Marcus Aurelius
By the reign of Marcus Aurelius, public entertainments had expanded to 135 days per year, up from 77 days under Augustus. This expansion reflected the growing importance of 'bread and circuses' in maintaining social order and the emperor's relationship with the populace.
Entertainment Days Expand to 135 Under Marcus Aurelius
By the reign of Marcus Aurelius, public entertainments had expanded from Augustus' 77 days to 135 days per year, demonstrating the increasing importance of state-sponsored spectacles in maintaining social order and imperial legitimacy.
Accession of Commodus
The accession of Commodus in 180 marked what contemporary historian Cassius Dio described as the descent 'from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron,' signaling the beginning of the Empire's decline.
Accession of Commodus
The accession of Commodus marks what contemporary historian Cassius Dio described as the descent 'from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron.' This event has led some historians, notably Edward Gibbon, to consider Commodus' reign as the beginning of the Empire's decline.
Currency Debasement Under Antonine and Severan Dynasties
Emperors of the Antonine and Severan dynasties debased Roman currency, particularly the denarius, under the pressures of meeting military payrolls. This marked the beginning of a long-term decline in the integrity of Roman coinage that would contribute to later economic instability.
Sudden Inflation under Commodus
During the reign of Emperor Commodus, sudden inflation severely damaged the Roman credit market, contributing to economic instability and foreshadowing the financial troubles of the third century.
Sudden Inflation Under Commodus
During the reign of Emperor Commodus (180-192 AD), sudden inflation damaged the Roman credit market. This economic disruption was part of the broader pattern of currency debasement and foreshadowed the more severe economic crises of the 3rd century.
Italians Become Minority in Senate Under Severan Dynasty
By the Severan dynasty (193–235 AD), Italians made up less than half the Senate for the first time. This marked a significant shift in the composition of Roman political leadership, reflecting the increasing provincialization of the Empire and the rise of provincial elites to positions of power.
Fragment of a sarcophagus depicting Gordian III and senators (3rd century)
Fragment of a sarcophagus from the 3rd century showing Gordian III and senators
Caracalla Grants Universal Roman Citizenship
During the reign of Caracalla, Roman citizenship was granted to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire, a major expansion of civic rights throughout the Roman world.
Universal Roman Citizenship Granted
During the reign of Caracalla, Roman citizenship is granted to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire through the Constitutio Antoniniana. This represents a fundamental transformation in the legal and social structure of the Roman Empire.
Granting of Universal Citizenship
Universal citizenship was granted throughout the Roman Empire in 212 AD (likely referring to the Constitutio Antoniniana). This major legal reform increased competitive urges among the upper classes to affirm their superiority, particularly within the justice system, leading to greater inequality in legal treatment between honestiores and humiliores.
Extension of Universal Citizenship
The Roman Empire extended universal citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Empire in 212 AD. This landmark legal reform required the uniform application of Roman law throughout the Empire, replacing local law codes that had previously applied to non-citizens. This represented a fundamental transformation in Roman legal and social structure.
Constitutio Antoniniana Extends Citizenship Throughout Empire
The Constitutio Antoniniana extended Roman citizenship to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire. This landmark legal reform represented a fundamental shift toward legal egalitarianism and required a far-reaching revision of existing laws that had distinguished between citizens and non-citizens. It marked a major transformation in Roman legal and social structure.
215 CE - 297 CE
Crisis of the Third Century
The Empire was engulfed by a 49-year crisis that threatened its existence due to civil war, plagues, and barbarian invasions. The Gallic and Palmyrene empires broke away from the state, and a series of short-lived emperors led the Empire before it was reunified under Aurelian.
Crisis of the Third Century
Following the collapse of the Severan dynasty, the Empire is engulfed by the Crisis of the Third Century, a period of invasions, civil strife, economic disorder, and plague. This crisis sometimes marks the transition from Classical to Late Antiquity in historical periodization.
Barbarian Invasions
The Barbarian invasions consisted of the movement of (mainly) ancient Germanic peoples into Roman territory. Historically, this event marked the transition between classical antiquity and the Middle Ages.
Literacy Begins to Decline During Crisis of the Third Century
Literacy began to decline during the Crisis of the Third Century, marking a significant cultural shift. This decline continued as the Western Roman Empire weakened, with reading becoming rarer even among the Church hierarchy, though literacy continued in the Byzantine Empire.
Disruption of Large-Scale Mining Operations
Intensive large-scale mining of precious and base metals, which had taken place from the reign of Augustus, came to an end in the early 3rd century when the instability of the Empire disrupted production. This marked the end of proto-industrial scale metal extraction that had been unmatched until the Industrial Revolution.
Las Médulas mining landscape
Landscape resulting from the mining technique at Las Médulas, Spain, one of the most important gold mines in the Roman Empire
Sharp Contraction of Specie Supply
In the mid-200s AD, the supply of specie (coined money) contracted sharply, marking a significant deterioration in the Roman monetary system and contributing to broader economic problems.
Contraction of Specie Supply
In the mid-200s AD, the supply of specie (coined money) contracted sharply. This monetary crisis was a precursor to the broader Crisis of the Third Century and significantly impacted trade and economic stability throughout the Empire.
Economic Collapse During Crisis of the Third Century
The Crisis of the Third Century brought severe economic disruption including reductions in long-distance trade, disruption of mining operations, and the physical transfer of gold coinage outside the empire by invading enemies. These conditions greatly diminished the money supply and devastated the banking sector, representing one of the most severe economic crises in Roman history.
Aurelian Reforms the Grain Dole with Bread Distribution
By the reign of Aurelian, the state began distributing the annona as a daily ration of bread baked in state factories, and added olive oil, wine, and pork to the dole. This represented a significant expansion of the state welfare system beyond the earlier grain distribution.
Banking Crisis Under Aurelian
Under Emperor Aurelian (270-275 AD), general economic anxieties came to a head and bankers lost confidence in coins, despite Roman coinage having long been fiat money. This crisis marked a critical point in the decline of the Roman monetary and banking system.
Diocletian's Reforms and Decline of Greek Knowledge in West
Following Diocletian's administrative reforms in the 3rd century CE, there was a notable decline in the knowledge of Greek in the western parts of the empire, marking a linguistic shift in the Roman world.
Diocletian Reorganizes the Empire
Diocletian reorganized and restored much of the empire in 285, dividing it into four regions each ruled by a separate tetrarch. His reign also brought the empire's most concerted effort against Christianity, the 'Great Persecution.'
Diocletian's Reforms and Reorganization
Diocletian reorganizes and restores much of the empire, dividing it into four regions each ruled by a separate tetrarch (the Tetrarchy system). His reign also brings the empire's most concerted effort against Christianity, known as the 'Great Persecution.'
Compilation of Codex Gregorianus and Codex Hermogenianus
As part of Emperor Diocletian's efforts to stabilize the Empire after the Crisis of the Third Century, two major compilations of law were produced in four years: the Codex Gregorianus and the Codex Hermogenianus. These legal codes were designed to guide provincial administrators in setting consistent legal standards across the empire.
Italy Loses Tax Privileges Under Diocletian
Under Emperor Diocletian, Italy lost its traditional immunity from property tax and poll tax, privileges it had enjoyed along with some favored provincial communities during the High Empire. Italy was subdivided into provinces, marking the end of its special legal and fiscal status and representing a fundamental shift in the administrative structure of the empire.
Diocletian's Monetary Reforms and Introduction of the Solidus
Emperor Diocletian introduced the gold solidus and implemented monetary reforms in an attempt to stabilize the Roman economy. However, despite these efforts, the credit market of the Empire never recovered its former robustness, marking a permanent shift in the Roman economic system.
298 CE - 380 CE
Codex Replaces the Scroll
By the end of the 3rd century, the codex (pages bound to a spine) was replacing the traditional papyrus roll (volumen) as the primary book format. Though still a novelty in the 1st century, this innovation transformed how texts were produced and consumed throughout the Empire.
Constantine Converts to Christianity
Constantine the Great becomes the first emperor to convert to Christianity and establishes Constantinople as the new capital of the Eastern Empire. This marks a fundamental transformation in the religious character of the Roman Empire.
Solidus of Constantine II
Solidus issued under Constantine II, and on the reverse Victoria, one of the last deities to appear on Roman coins, gradually transforming into an angel under Christian rule
Constantine Establishes Constantinople
Constantine the Great, the first emperor to convert to Christianity, moved the imperial seat from Rome to Byzantium in 330 and renamed it Constantinople, establishing it as the new capital of the Eastern Empire.
Emperor Julian Bans Christians from Teaching Classical Curriculum
Emperor Julian banned Christians from teaching the classical curriculum in an attempt to preserve traditional Roman education. However, Church Fathers and other Christians adopted Latin and Greek literature, philosophy, and science in biblical interpretation, ensuring the continuation of classical learning.
Transition from Communal to Individual Bathing
In the late 4th century, individual tubs began to replace communal bathing in public baths. This shift reflected changing social customs and the influence of Christianity, as Christians were advised to go to the baths only for hygiene rather than socializing.
381 CE - 463 CE
Jerome Produces the Vulgate Bible Translation
In the late 4th century, Jerome produced the Latin translation of the Bible that became authoritative as the Vulgate. This translation became the standard biblical text for Western Christianity for over a millennium and profoundly influenced Christian theology and Latin literature.
Theodosius I Makes Christianity the State Religion
Theodosius I, the last emperor to rule over both East and West, made Christianity the state religion before his death in 395, fundamentally transforming the religious character of the Roman Empire.
The administrative divisions of the Roman Empire in 395 AD
The administrative divisions of the Roman Empire in 395 AD
Permanent Division of the Roman Empire
Theodosius I, the last emperor to rule over both East and West, dies after making Christianity the state religion. His death in 395 results in the permanent division of the empire along an east-west axis, with dual power centers in Constantinople and Rome.
Administrative divisions of the Roman Empire in 395 AD
The administrative divisions of the Roman Empire in 395 AD
Administrative Division of the Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was administratively divided into Eastern and Western halves in 395 AD, a critical reorganization that would lead to divergent historical trajectories for each region.
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The administrative divisions of the Roman Empire in 395 AD
Augustine Writes The City of God
Around the late 4th century, Augustine wrote 'The City of God against the Pagans,' considered 'a masterpiece of Western culture.' This work defended Christianity against accusations that it caused Rome's decline and profoundly influenced medieval Christian thought.
464 CE - 546 CE
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
The Western Roman Empire ended when Romulus Augustulus was forced to abdicate to the Germanic warlord Odoacer, who declared Zeno sole emperor and placed himself as Zeno's nominal subordinate. In reality, Italy was ruled by Odoacer alone.
The Roman Empire by 476, noting western and eastern divisions
The Roman Empire by 476, noting western and eastern divisions
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
The Western Roman Empire ends when Romulus Augustulus is forced to abdicate to the Germanic warlord Odoacer. Odoacer declares Zeno sole emperor and places himself as Zeno's nominal subordinate, though in reality Italy is ruled by Odoacer alone. This marks the traditional end date of the Western Roman Empire.
The Roman Empire by 476
The Roman Empire by 476, noting western and eastern divisions
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
By 476 AD, the Western Roman Empire had collapsed, marking the traditional end date of the Western Empire. The Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) continued until 1453. This event represented the culmination of centuries of pressure from barbarian invasions, internal instability, and the factors contributing to imperial collapse, including the resistance of the wealthy to paying taxes.
The Roman Empire by 476, noting western and eastern divisions
Map showing the division between Western and Eastern Roman Empires in 476 AD
The Barbarian invasions
The Barbarian invasions consisted of the movement of (mainly) ancient Germanic peoples into Roman territory. Historically, this event marked the transition between classical antiquity and the Middle Ages.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
The Western Roman Empire collapsed in 476 AD, marking the end of ancient Rome's political authority in the West and the transition to the Middle Ages. This event is considered one of the most significant turning points in European history.
File:Western and Eastern Roman Empires 476AD(3).svg
The Roman Empire by 476, noting western and eastern divisions
File:Invasions of the Roman Empire 1.png
The Barbarian invasions consisted of the movement of (mainly) ancient Germanic peoples into Roman territory. Historically, this event marked the transition between classical antiquity and the Middle Ages.
Decline of Chariot Racing
Chariot racing, which had continued into the Byzantine period under imperial sponsorship, eventually declined due to the decline of cities in the 6th and 7th centuries. This marked the end of one of Rome's most enduring and popular spectacles.
Nika Riots in Constantinople
The Nika riots of 532 CE represented the most notorious example of spectacles becoming sites of social and political protest, requiring the emperor to deploy force to put down crowd unrest. The riots demonstrated the volatile nature of public entertainment venues as political spaces.
Nika Riots in Constantinople
A major riot erupted in Constantinople during the reign of Justinian I, representing one of the most violent instances of crowd unrest at spectacles in Roman history. The riots began at the Hippodrome and nearly toppled the emperor, requiring military force to suppress. The event demonstrated how spectacles could quickly become sites of social and political protest.
547 CE - 629 CE
Decline of Chariot Racing
The decline of cities in the 6th and 7th centuries led to the eventual demise of chariot racing, which had continued into the Byzantine period under imperial sponsorship. This marked the end of one of Rome's most enduring and popular forms of public entertainment.
Decline of Chariot Racing in 6th-7th Centuries
Chariot racing, which had continued into the Byzantine period under imperial sponsorship, came to an end as the decline of cities in the 6th and 7th centuries led to its eventual demise. This marked the end of one of Rome's most enduring entertainment traditions.
1377 CE - 1453 CE
Fall of Constantinople
The Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) ended with the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Constantine XI Palaiologos, the last Roman emperor, died in battle against Mehmed II and his Ottoman forces during the siege. Mehmed II adopted the title of caesar in an attempt to claim connection to the former Empire.
Animated overview of the Roman territorial history from the Republic until the fall of its last remnant (the Byzantine Empire) in 1453
Animated overview of the Roman territorial history from the Republic until the fall of its last remnant (the Byzantine Empire) in 1453
Fall of Constantinople and End of Byzantine Empire
Constantine XI Palaiologos, the last Roman emperor, dies in battle against Mehmed II and his Ottoman forces during the siege of Constantinople. This marks the final end of the Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire). Mehmed II adopts the title of caesar in an attempt to claim connection to the former Empire.
Fall of the Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire) fell in 1453 AD with the conquest of Constantinople, marking the final end of the Roman Empire's last remnant after nearly 1,500 years of continuous Roman imperial tradition.
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Animated overview of the Roman territorial history from the Republic until the fall of its last remnant (the Byzantine Empire) in 1453
